Single-molecule studies of the stringency factors and rates governing the polymerization of RecA on double-stranded DNA

Single-molecule insight into stalled replication fork rescue in Escherichia coli

DNA replication forks stall at least once per cell cycle in Escherichia coli. DNA replication must be restarted if the cell is to survive. Restart is a multi-step process requiring the sequential action of several proteins whose actions are dictated by the nature of the impediment to fork progression. When fork progress is impeded, the sequential actions of SSB, RecG and the RuvABC complex are required for rescue. In contrast, when a template discontinuity results in the forked DNA breaking apart, the actions of the RecBCD pathway enzymes are required to resurrect the fork so that replication can resume. In this review, we focus primarily on the significant insight gained from single-molecule studies of individual proteins, protein complexes, and also, partially reconstituted regression and RecBCD pathways. This insight is related to the bulk-phase biochemical data to provide a comprehensive review of each protein or protein complex as it relates to stalled DNA replication fork rescue.

S-DNA and RecA/RAD51-Mediated Strand Exchange in Vitro

S-DNA (stretched DNA) is an elongated base-paired DNA conformation under high tension. Because the RecA/Rad51 family DNA recombinases form helical filaments on DNA and mediate the formation of the DNA triplex (D-loop), in which the DNA is stretched, and because the extension of these nucleoprotein filaments is similar to the extension of S-DNA, S-DNA has long been hypothesized as a possible state of DNA that participants in RecA/Rad51-mediated DNA strand exchange in homologous recombination. Such a hypothesis, however, is still lacking direct experimental studies. In this work, we have studied the polymerization and strand exchange on S-DNA mediated by Escherichia coli RecA, human Rad51, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad51 by single-molecule magnetic tweezers. We report that RecA/Rad51 polymerizes faster on S-DNA than on B-DNA with the same buffer conditions. Furthermore, the RecA/Rad51-mediated DNA triplex forms faster from S-DNA than from B-DNA together with the homologous single-stranded DNA. These results provide evidence that S-DNA can interact with RecA and Rad51 and shed light on the possible functions of S-DNA.

The poor homology stringency in the heteroduplex allows strand exchange to incorporate desirable mismatches without sacrificing recognition in vivo

RecA family proteins are responsible for homology search and strand exchange. In bacteria, homology search begins after RecA binds an initiating single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in the primary DNA-binding site, forming the presynaptic filament. Once the filament is formed, it interrogates double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). During the interrogation, bases in the dsDNA attempt to form Watson–Crick bonds with the corresponding bases in the initiating strand. Mismatch dependent instability in the base pairing in the heteroduplex strand exchange product could provide stringent recognition; however, we present experimental and theoretical results suggesting that the heteroduplex stability is insensitive to mismatches. We also present data suggesting that an initial homology test of 8 contiguous bases rejects most interactions containing more than 1/8 mismatches without forming a detectable 20 bp product. We propose that, in vivo, the sparsity of accidental sequence matches allows an initial 8 bp test to rapidly reject almost all non-homologous sequences. We speculate that once the initial test is passed, the mismatch insensitive binding in the heteroduplex allows short mismatched regions to be incorporated in otherwise homologous strand exchange products even though sequences with less homology are eventually rejected.

RecA bundles mediate homology pairing between distant sisters during DNA break repair

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair by homologous recombination has evolved to maintain genetic integrity in all organisms. Although many reactions that occur during homologous recombination are known, it is unclear where, when and how they occur in cells. Here, by using conventional and super-resolution microscopy, we describe the progression of DSB repair in live Escherichia coli. Specifically, we investigate whether homologous recombination can occur efficiently between distant sister loci that have segregated to opposite halves of an E. coli cell. We show that a site-specific DSB in one sister can be repaired efficiently using distant sister homology. After RecBCD processing of the DSB, RecA is recruited to the cut locus, where it nucleates into a bundle that contains many more RecA molecules than can associate with the two single-stranded DNA regions that form at the DSB. Mature bundles extend along the long axis of the cell, in the space between the bulk nucleoid and the inner membrane. Bundle formation is followed by pairing, in which the two ends of the cut locus relocate at the periphery of the nucleoid and together move rapidly towards the homology of the uncut sister. After sister locus pairing, RecA bundles disassemble and proteins that act late in homologous recombination are recruited to give viable recombinants 1-2-generation-time equivalents after formation of the initial DSB. Mutated RecA proteins that do not form bundles are defective in sister pairing and in DSB-induced repair. This work reveals an unanticipated role of RecA bundles in channelling the movement of the DNA DSB ends, thereby facilitating the long-range homology search that occurs before the strand invasion and transfer reactions.

The differential extension in dsDNA bound to Rad51 filaments may play important roles in homology recognition and strand exchange

RecA and Rad51 proteins play an important role in DNA repair and homologous recombination. For RecA, X-ray structure information and single molecule force experiments have indicated that the differential extension between the complementary strand and its Watson–Crick pairing partners promotes the rapid unbinding of non-homologous dsDNA and drives strand exchange forward for homologous dsDNA. In this work we find that both effects are also present in Rad51 protein. In particular, pulling on the opposite termini (3′ and 5′) of one of the two DNA strands in a dsDNA molecule allows dsDNA to extend along non-homologous Rad51-ssDNA filaments and remain stably bound in the extended state, but pulling on the 3′5′ ends of the complementary strand reduces the strand-exchange rate for homologous filaments. Thus, the results suggest that differential extension is also present in dsDNA bound to Rad51. The differential extension promotes rapid recognition by driving the swift unbinding of dsDNA from non-homologous Rad51-ssDNA filaments, while at the same time, reducing base pair tension due to the transfer of the Watson–Crick pairing of the complementary strand bases from the highly extended outgoing strand to the slightly less extended incoming strand, which drives strand exchange forward.

Dynamics and Regulation of RecA Polymerization and De-Polymerization on Double-Stranded DNA

The RecA filament formed on double-stranded (ds) DNA is proposed to be a functional state analogous to that generated during the process of DNA strand exchange. RecA polymerization and de-polymerization on dsDNA is governed by multiple physiological factors. However, a comprehensive understanding of how these factors regulate the processes of polymerization and de-polymerization of RecA filament on dsDNA is still evolving. Here, we investigate the effects of temperature, pH, tensile force, and DNA ends (in particular ssDNA overhang) on the polymerization and de-polymerization dynamics of the E. coli RecA filament at a single-molecule level. Our results identified the optimal conditions that permitted spontaneous RecA nucleation and polymerization, as well as conditions that could maintain the stability of a preformed RecA filament. Further examination at a nano-meter spatial resolution, by stretching short DNA constructs, revealed a striking dynamic RecA polymerization and de-polymerization induced saw-tooth pattern in DNA extension fluctuation. In addition, we show that RecA does not polymerize on S-DNA, a recently identified novel base-paired elongated DNA structure that was previously proposed to be a possible binding substrate for RecA. Overall, our studies have helped to resolve several previous single-molecule studies that reported contradictory and inconsistent results on RecA nucleation, polymerization and stability. Furthermore, our findings also provide insights into the regulatory mechanisms of RecA filament formation and stability in vivo.

Kinetic mechanism for viral dsRNA length discrimination by MDA5 filaments

The viral sensor MDA5 distinguishes between cellular and viral dsRNAs by length-dependent recognition in the range of ~0.5-7 kb. The ability to discriminate dsRNA length at this scale sets MDA5 apart from other dsRNA receptors of the immune system. We have shown previously that MDA5 forms filaments along dsRNA that disassemble upon ATP hydrolysis. Here, we demonstrate that filament formation alone is insufficient to explain its length specificity, because the intrinsic affinity of MDA5 for dsRNA depends only moderately on dsRNA length. Instead, MDA5 uses a combination of end disassembly and slow nucleation kinetics to "discard" short dsRNA rapidly and to suppress rebinding. In contrast, filaments on long dsRNA cycle between partial end disassembly and elongation, bypassing nucleation steps. MDA5 further uses this repetitive cycle of assembly and disassembly processes to repair filament discontinuities, which often are present because of multiple, internal nucleation events, and to generate longer, continuous filaments that more accurately reflect the length of the underlying dsRNA scaffold. Because the length of the continuous filament determines the stability of the MDA5-dsRNA interaction, the mechanism proposed here provides an explanation for how MDA5 uses filament assembly and disassembly dynamics to discriminate between self vs. nonself dsRNA.

Complementary strand relocation may play vital roles in RecA-based homology recognition

RecA-family proteins mediate homologous recombination and recombinational DNA repair through homology search and strand exchange. Initially, the protein forms a filament with the incoming single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) bound in site I. The RecA–ssDNA filament then binds double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) in site II. Non-homologous dsDNA rapidly unbinds, whereas homologous dsDNA undergoes strand exchange yielding heteroduplex dsDNA in site I and the leftover outgoing strand in site II. We show that applying force to the ends of the complementary strand significantly retards strand exchange, whereas applying the same force to the outgoing strand does not. We also show that crystallographically determined binding site locations require an intermediate structure in addition to the initial and final structures. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the characteristic dsDNA extension rates due to strand exchange and free RecA binding are the same, suggesting that relocation of the complementary strand from its position in the intermediate structure to its position in the final structure limits both rates. Finally, we propose that homology recognition is governed by transitions to and from the intermediate structure, where the transitions depend on differential extension in the dsDNA. This differential extension drives strand exchange forward for homologs and increases the free energy penalty for strand exchange of non-homologs.

RecA homology search is promoted by mechanical stress along the scanned duplex DNA

A RecA–single-stranded DNA (RecA–ssDNA) filament searches a genome for sequence homology by rapidly binding and unbinding double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) until homology is found. We demonstrate that pulling on the opposite termini (3′ and 5′) of one of the two DNA strands in a dsDNA molecule stabilizes the normally unstable binding of that dsDNA to non-homologous RecA–ssDNA filaments, whereas pulling on the two 3′, the two 5′, or all four termini does not. We propose that the ‘outgoing’ strand in the dsDNA is extended by strong DNA–protein contacts, whereas the ‘complementary’ strand is extended by the tension on the base pairs that connect the ‘complementary’ strand to the ‘outgoing’ strand. The stress resulting from different levels of tension on its constitutive strands causes rapid dsDNA unbinding unless sufficient homology is present.

Changes in the tension in dsDNA alter the conformation of RecA bound to dsDNA-RecA filaments

The RecA protein is an ATPase that mediates recombination via strand exchange. In strand exchange a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) bound to RecA binding site I in a RecA/ssDNA filament pairs with one strand of a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and forms heteroduplex dsDNA in site I if homology is encountered. Long sequences are exchanged in a dynamic process in which initially unbound dsDNA binds to the leading end of a RecA/ssDNA filament, while heteroduplex dsDNA unbinds from the lagging end via ATP hydrolysis. ATP hydrolysis is required to convert the active RecA conformation, which cannot unbind, to the inactive conformation, which can unbind. If dsDNA extension due to RecA binding increases the dsDNA tension, then RecA unbinding must decrease tension. We show that in the presence of ATP hydrolysis decreases in tension induce decreases in length whereas in the absence of hydrolysis, changes in tension have no systematic effect. These results suggest that decreases in force enhance dissociation by promoting transitions from the active to the inactive RecA conformation. In contrast, increases in tension reduce dissociation. Thus, the changes in tension inherent to strand exchange may couple with ATP hydrolysis to increase the directionality and stringency of strand exchange.