1
|
Crowell HL, Curlis JD, Weller HI, Davis Rabosky AR. Ecological drivers of ultraviolet colour evolution in snakes. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5213. [PMID: 38890335 PMCID: PMC11189474 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49506-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) colour patterns invisible to humans are widespread in nature. However, research bias favouring species with conspicuous colours under sexual selection can limit our assessment of other ecological drivers of UV colour, like interactions between predators and prey. Here we demonstrate widespread UV colouration across Western Hemisphere snakes and find stronger support for a predator defence function than for reproduction. We find that UV colouration has evolved repeatedly in species with ecologies most sensitive to bird predation, with no sexual dichromatism at any life stage. By modelling visual systems of potential predators, we find that snake conspicuousness correlates with UV colouration and predator cone number, providing a plausible mechanism for selection. Our results suggest that UV reflectance should not be assumed absent in "cryptically coloured" animals, as signalling beyond human visual capacities may be a key outcome of species interactions in many taxa for which UV colour is likely underreported.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hayley L Crowell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - John David Curlis
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Hannah I Weller
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
- Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Uusimaa, 00790, Finland
| | - Alison R Davis Rabosky
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Raška J, Chalušová K, Krajiček J, Čabala R, Bosáková Z, Štys P, Exnerová A. Ontogenetic change in effectiveness of chemical defence against different predators in Oxycarenus true bugs. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:1050-1064. [PMID: 37428808 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Many prey species change their antipredator defence during ontogeny, which may be connected to different potential predators over the life cycle of the prey. To test this hypothesis, we compared reactions of two predator taxa - spiders and birds - to larvae and adults of two invasive true bug species, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis and Oxycarenus lavaterae (Heteroptera: Oxycarenidae) with life-stage-specific chemical defence mechanisms. The reactions to larvae and adults of both true bug species strikingly differed between the two predator taxa. The spiders were deterred by the defences of adult bugs, but the larval defences were ineffective against them. By contrast, birds attacked the larvae considerably less often than the adult bugs. The results indicate a predator-specific ontogenetic change in defence effectiveness of both Oxycarenus species. The change in defence is likely linked to the life-stage-specific composition of secretions in both species: whereas secretions of larvae are dominated by unsaturated aldehydes, secretions of adults are rich in terpenoids, which probably serve dual function of defensive chemicals and pheromones. Our results highlight the variation in defence between different life stages and the importance of testing responses of different types of predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Chalušová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krajiček
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Radomír Čabala
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Bosáková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rhoads DD, Williams DA. Background Color Matching in Texas Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum). J HERPETOL 2023. [DOI: 10.1670/22-008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
|
4
|
Stella D, Kleisner K. Visible beyond Violet: How Butterflies Manage Ultraviolet. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13030242. [PMID: 35323542 PMCID: PMC8955501 DOI: 10.3390/insects13030242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) means ‘beyond violet’ (from Latin ‘ultra’, meaning ‘beyond’), whereby violet is the colour with the highest frequencies in the ‘visible’ light spectrum. By ‘visible’ we mean human vision, but, in comparison to many other organisms, human visual perception is rather limited in terms of the wavelengths it can perceive. Still, this is why communication in the UV spectrum is often called hidden, although it most likely plays an important role in communicating various kinds of information among a wide variety of organisms. Since Silberglied’s revolutionary Communication in the Ultraviolet, comprehensive studies on UV signals in a wide list of genera are lacking. This review investigates the significance of UV reflectance (and UV absorption)—a feature often neglected in intra- and interspecific communication studies—mainly in Lepidoptera. Although the text focuses on various butterfly families, links and connections to other animal groups, such as birds, are also discussed in the context of ecology and the evolution of species. The basic mechanisms of UV colouration and factors shaping the characteristics of UV patterns are also discussed in a broad context of lepidopteran communication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Stella
- Global Change Research Institute, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Philosophy and History of Science, Faculty of Science, Charles University, 128 44 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Kleisner
- Department of Philosophy and History of Science, Faculty of Science, Charles University, 128 44 Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yeager J, Barnett JB. The influence of ultraviolet reflectance differs between conspicuous aposematic signals in neotropical butterflies and poison frogs. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:13633-13640. [PMID: 34707805 PMCID: PMC8525173 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Warning signals are often characterized by highly contrasting, distinctive, and memorable colors. Greater chromatic (hue) and achromatic (brightness) contrast have both been found to contribute to greater signal efficacy, making longwave colored signals (e.g., red and yellow), that are perceived by both chromatic and achromatic visual pathways, particularly common. Conversely, shortwave colors (e.g., blue and ultraviolet) do not contribute to luminance perception yet are also commonly found in warning signals. Our understanding of the role of UV in aposematic signals is currently incomplete as UV perception is not universal, and evidence for its utility is at best mixed. We used visual modeling to quantify how UV affects signal contrast in aposematic heliconiian butterflies and poison frogs both of which reflect UV wavelengths, occupy similar habitats, and share similar classes of predators. Previous work on butterflies has found that UV reflectance does not affect predation risk but is involved in mate choice. As the butterflies, but not the frogs, have UV-sensitive vision, the function of UV reflectance in poison frogs is currently unknown. We found that despite showing up strongly in UV photographs, UV reflectance only appreciably affected visual contrast in the butterflies. As such, these results support the notion that although UV reflectance is associated with intraspecific communication in butterflies, it appears to be nonfunctional in frogs. Consequently, our data highlight that we should be careful when assigning a selection-based benefit to the presence of UV reflectance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Yeager
- Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y SaludUniversidad de Las AméricasQuitoEcuador
| | - James B. Barnett
- Psychology, Neuroscience & BehaviourMcMaster UniversityHamiltonONCanada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Winters AE, Lommi J, Kirvesoja J, Nokelainen O, Mappes J. Multimodal Aposematic Defenses Through the Predation Sequence. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.657740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic organisms warn predators of their unprofitability using a combination of defenses, including visual warning signals, startling sounds, noxious odors, or aversive tastes. Using multiple lines of defense can help prey avoid predators by stimulating multiple senses and/or by acting at different stages of predation. We tested the efficacy of three lines of defense (color, smell, taste) during the predation sequence of aposematic wood tiger moths (Arctia plantaginis) using blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) predators. Moths with two hindwing phenotypes (genotypes: WW/Wy = white, yy = yellow) were manipulated to have defense fluid with aversive smell (methoxypyrazines), body tissues with aversive taste (pyrrolizidine alkaloids) or both. In early predation stages, moth color and smell had additive effects on bird approach latency and dropping the prey, with the strongest effect for moths of the white morph with defense fluids. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration was detrimental in early attack stages, suggesting a trade-off between pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration and investment in other defenses. In addition, pyrrolizidine alkaloid taste alone did not deter bird predators. Birds could only effectively discriminate toxic moths from non-toxic moths when neck fluids containing methoxypyrazines were present, at which point they abandoned attack at the consumption stage. As a result, moths of the white morph with an aversive methoxypyrazine smell and moths in the treatment with both chemical defenses had the greatest chance of survival. We suggest that methoxypyrazines act as context setting signals for warning colors and as attention alerting or “go-slow” signals for distasteful toxins, thereby mediating the relationship between warning signal and toxicity. Furthermore, we found that moths that were heterozygous for hindwing coloration had more effective defense fluids compared to other genotypes in terms of delaying approach and reducing the latency to drop the moth, suggesting a genetic link between coloration and defense that could help to explain the color polymorphism. Conclusively, these results indicate that color, smell, and taste constitute a multimodal warning signal that impedes predator attack and improves prey survival. This work highlights the importance of understanding the separate roles of color, smell and taste through the predation sequence and also within-species variation in chemical defenses.
Collapse
|
7
|
Pegram KV, Fankhauser K, Rutowski RL. Variation in predator response to short-wavelength warning coloration. Behav Processes 2021; 187:104377. [PMID: 33771606 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Warning coloration deters predators from attacking unpalatable prey, and is often characterized by long-wavelength colors, such as orange and red. However, warning colors in nature are more diverse and include short-wavelength colors, like blue. Blue has evolved as a primary defense in some animals but is not common. One hypothesis for the maintenance of this diversity is interspecific variation in predator responses to signals. We tested this hypothesis with galliform birds: Gambel's quail (Callipepla gambelii) and two domestic chicken breeds (Gallus gallus domesticus; Plymouth Rocks, Cochin Bantams). We measured innate avoidance and learning responses to only blue prey, only orange prey, and orange-and-blue prey, where the blue was iridescent to represent the natural coloration of the pipevine swallowtail butterfly (Battus philenor). We predicted birds would have similar responses to orange, but vary in response to blue. Upon first encounter, Cochin Bantams did not attack blue and Gambel's quail readily attacked, indicating innate avoidance by Cochin Bantams. Plymouth Rocks had no innate aversion to any color, lower attack latencies and attacked most prey items. Cochin Bantams and Gambel's quail both learned orange and orange-and-blue quicker than blue. Our results support the hypothesis that interspecific variation in predator response could maintain warning color diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly V Pegram
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States; Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix, AZ, 85008, United States.
| | - Kaci Fankhauser
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States
| | - Ronald L Rutowski
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Detectability is in the eye of the beholder—the role of UV reflectance on tadpole detection and predation by a passerine bird. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-02983-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
9
|
Yeager J, Barnett JB. Ultraviolet components offer minimal contrast enhancement to an aposematic signal. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:13576-13582. [PMID: 33391663 PMCID: PMC7771128 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic and sexual signals are often characterized by bright, highly contrasting colors. Many species can see colors beyond the human visible spectrum, and ultraviolet (UV) reflection has been found to play an important role in communication and sexual selection. However, the role of UV in aposematic signals is poorly explored. Poison frogs frequently produce high-contrast signals that have been linked to both aposematism and intraspecific communication. Yet despite considerable efforts studying interspecific and intraspecific diversity in color, poison frogs are not known to perceive UV, and UV reflection of the integument has not been described. We report UV-reflective spots in a population of Oophaga sylvatica and quantify the effect of UV on visual contrast with models of avian vision. We found that the frogs are highly contrasting, but UV had a minimal effect on signal saliency. These data highlight the importance of considering UV reflectance within aposematic signals, but that UV should not necessarily be regarded as an independent signal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Yeager
- Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y SaludUniversidad de Las AméricasQuitoEcuador
| | - James B. Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & BehaviourMcMaster UniversityHamiltonONCanada
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kim Y, Hwang Y, Bae S, Sherratt TN, An J, Choi SW, Miller JC, Kang C. Prey with hidden colour defences benefit from their similarity to aposematic signals. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201894. [PMID: 32900312 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Some camouflaged animals hide colour signals and display them only transiently. These hidden colour signals are often conspicuous and are used as a secondary defence to warn or startle predators (deimatic displays) and/or to confuse them (flash displays). The hidden signals used in these displays frequently resemble typical aposematic signals, so it is possible that prey with hidden signals have evolved to employ colour patterns of a form that predators have previously learned to associate with unprofitability. Here, we tested this hypothesis by conducting two experiments that examined the effect of predator avoidance learning on the efficacy of deimatic and flash displays. We found that the survival benefits of both deimatic and flash displays were substantially higher against predators that had previously learned to associate the hidden colours with unprofitability than against naive predators. These findings help explain the phenological patterns we found in 1568 macro-lepidopteran species on three continents: species with hidden signals tend to occur later in the season than species without hidden signals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yongsu Kim
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Yerin Hwang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Sangryong Bae
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Thomas N Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Jeongseop An
- National Institute of Ecology, Seocheon, Chungcheongnamdo 33657, South Korea
| | - Sei-Woong Choi
- Department of Environmental Education, Mokpo National University, Cheonggye, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Jeffrey C Miller
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Henze MJ, Lind O, Mappes J, Rojas B, Kelber A. An aposematic colour‐polymorphic moth seen through the eyes of conspecifics and predators – Sensitivity and colour discrimination in a tiger moth. Funct Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam J. Henze
- Lund Vision GroupDepartment of BiologyLund University Lund Sweden
| | - Olle Lind
- Department of PhilosophyCognitive ScienceLund University Lund Sweden
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological InteractionsUniversity of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological InteractionsUniversity of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Almut Kelber
- Lund Vision GroupDepartment of BiologyLund University Lund Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Alves VM, Hernández MIM, Lobo JM. Elytra Absorb Ultraviolet Radiation but Transmit Infrared Radiation in Neotropical Canthon Species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeinae). Photochem Photobiol 2018; 94:532-539. [PMID: 29368396 DOI: 10.1111/php.12889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Strategies to deal with global radiation may be related to important aspects of species biology and ecology by reflecting, transmitting or absorbing the radiation of varying wavelengths differently. The elytra capacity to manage infrared, visible and ultraviolet radiations (from 185 to 1400 nm) was assessed with a spectrophotometric analysis in five Canthon species of dung beetles; we calculated the reflectance, transmittance and absorbance capacity of the elytra of these species. These species have different ecologies: two species preferentially inhabit forest areas (Canthon angularis and Canthon lividus lividus), two species preferentially inhabit open areas (Canthon chalybaeus and Canthon tetraodon) including agricultural crops, and one species does not present a clear habitat preference and can be found in both habitats (Canthon quinquemaculatus). All the species show a similar pattern in which the light from shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies is almost entirely absorbed by the elytra, while radiation from longer wavelengths and lower frequencies can mostly pass through the elytra. However, C. quinquemaculatus seems to have significantly higher rates of reflectance and transmittance in the visible- and near-infrared spectrum. This different pattern found in C. quinquemaculatus may be associated with its capacity to establish populations both in agricultural and forest areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Alves
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Malva I M Hernández
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Jorge M Lobo
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
O'Daniels ST, Kesler DC, Mihail JD, Webb EB, Werner SJ. Functional visual sensitivity to ultraviolet wavelengths in the Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), and its influence on foraging substrate selection. Physiol Behav 2017; 174:144-154. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
14
|
Finkbeiner SD, Fishman DA, Osorio D, Briscoe AD. Ultraviolet and yellow reflectance but not fluorescence is important for visual discrimination of conspecifics by Heliconius erato. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1267-1276. [PMID: 28108668 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.153593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxic Heliconius butterflies have yellow hindwing bars that - unlike those of their closest relatives - reflect ultraviolet (UV) and long wavelength light, and also fluoresce. The pigment in the yellow scales is 3-hydroxy-dl-kynurenine (3-OHK), which is found in the hair and scales of a variety of animals. In other butterflies like pierids with color schemes characterized by independent sources of variation in UV and human-visible yellow/orange, behavioral experiments have generally implicated the UV component as most relevant to mate choice. This has not been addressed in Heliconius butterflies, where variation exists in analogous color components, but moreover where fluorescence due to 3-OHK could also contribute to yellow wing coloration. In addition, the potential cost due to predator visibility is largely unknown for the analogous well-studied pierid butterfly species. In field studies with butterfly paper models, we show that both UV and 3-OHK yellow act as signals for H. erato when compared with models lacking UV or resembling ancestral Eueides yellow, respectively, but attack rates by birds do not differ significantly between the models. Furthermore, measurement of the quantum yield and reflectance spectra of 3-OHK indicates that fluorescence does not contribute to the visual signal under broad-spectrum illumination. Our results suggest that the use of 3-OHK pigmentation instead of ancestral yellow was driven by sexual selection rather than predation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA .,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City 0843-03092, Panama.,Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Dmitry A Fishman
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Daniel Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Corcobado G, Herberstein ME, Pekár S. The role of ultraviolet colour in the assessment of mimetic accuracy between Batesian mimics and their models: a case study using ant-mimicking spiders. Naturwissenschaften 2016; 103:90. [PMID: 27722878 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-016-1410-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The use of ultraviolet (UV) cues for intra- and inter-specific communication is common in many animal species. Still, the role of UV signals under some predator-prey contexts, such as Batesian mimicry, is not clear. Batesian mimicry is a defensive strategy by which a palatable species (the mimic) resembles an unpalatable or noxious species (the model) to avoid predation. This strategy has evolved independently in many different taxa that are predated by species capable of UV perception. Moreover, there is considerable variation in how accurately Batesian mimics resemble their models across species. Our aim was to investigate how UV colour contributed to mimetic accuracy using several ant-mimicking spider species as a case study. We measured the reflectance spectrum (300-700 nm) for several species of mimics and models, and we tested whether they differ in visible and UV colour. We modelled whether two different predators could discriminate between mimics and models using colour information. We found that generally, ant-mimicking spiders differed significantly from their ant models in UV colour and that information from the visible range of light cannot be extrapolated into the UV. Our modelling suggested that wasps should be able to discriminate between mimics and models combining information from visible and the UV light, whereas birds may not discriminate between them. Thus, we show that UV colour can influence mimic accuracy and we discuss its potential role in Batesian mimicry. We conclude that colour, especially in the UV range, should be taken into account when measuring mimetic accuracy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guadalupe Corcobado
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Zapletalová L, Zapletal M, Konvička M. Habitat Impact on Ultraviolet Reflectance in Moths. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 45:1300-1305. [PMID: 27566526 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvw097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A comparison of 95 species of Central European moths, representing 11 families and inhabiting various habitats, was carried out in order to detect the potential impact of biotope on the ultraviolet (UV) light reflectance of their wings. Based on digitized photographs taken under UV light conditions, a phylogeny-controlled redundancy analysis relating UV reflectance to preferred habitat type (xerophilous, mesophilous, and hygrophilous) and habitat openness (open, semiopen, and closed) was carried out. Species preferring hygrophilous habitats displayed significantly higher UV wing reflectance than species inhabiting xerothermic and mesic habitats, and this pattern remained significant even after controlling for phyletic relationships. In contrast, UV wing reflectance displayed no pattern related to habitat openness. Given the higher UV reflectance of water and humid surfaces, we interpret these results, which are based on the first comprehensive sampling of UV reflectance in Central European moths, in terms of predator avoidance under habitat-specific light conditions. We conclude that the moisture content of the environment may markedly contribute to the variation of appearance of moth wings for better imitation habitat characteristics and therefore to increase protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Zapletalová
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre AS CR, v.v.i., Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic (; )
| | - M Zapletal
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre AS CR, v.v.i., Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic (; )
| | - M Konvička
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre AS CR, v.v.i., Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic (; ) Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gordon SP, Kokko H, Rojas B, Nokelainen O, Mappes J. Colour polymorphism torn apart by opposing positive frequency-dependent selection, yet maintained in space. J Anim Ecol 2015; 84:1555-64. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Swanne P. Gordon
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyväskylä; yväskylä Finland
| | - Hanna Kokko
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies; University of Zurich; Zurich Switzerland
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyväskylä; yväskylä Finland
| | - Ossi Nokelainen
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyväskylä; yväskylä Finland
- Department of Zoology; University of Cambridge; Cambridge UK
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyväskylä; yväskylä Finland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abramjan A, Bauerová A, Somerová B, Frynta D. Why is the tongue of blue-tongued skinks blue? Reflectance of lingual surface and its consequences for visual perception by conspecifics and predators. Naturwissenschaften 2015; 102:42. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-015-1293-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
19
|
Santos JC, Baquero M, Barrio-Amorós C, Coloma LA, Erdtmann LK, Lima AP, Cannatella DC. Aposematism increases acoustic diversification and speciation in poison frogs. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:20141761. [PMID: 25320164 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multimodal signals facilitate communication with conspecifics during courtship, but they can also alert eavesdropper predators. Hence, signallers face two pressures: enticing partners to mate and avoiding detection by enemies. Undefended organisms with limited escape abilities are expected to minimize predator recognition over mate attraction by limiting or modifying their signalling. Alternatively, organisms with anti-predator mechanisms such as aposematism (i.e. unprofitability signalled by warning cues) might elaborate mating signals as a consequence of reduced predation. We hypothesize that calls diversified in association with aposematism. To test this, we assembled a large acoustic signal database for a diurnal lineage of aposematic and cryptic/non-defended taxa, the poison frogs. First, we showed that aposematic and non-aposematic species share similar extinction rates, and aposematic lineages diversify more and rarely revert to the non-aposematic phenotype. We then characterized mating calls based on morphological (spectral), behavioural/physiological (temporal) and environmental traits. Of these, only spectral and temporal features were associated with aposematism. We propose that with the evolution of anti-predator defences, reduced predation facilitated the diversification of vocal signals, which then became elaborated or showy via sexual selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan C Santos
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4 National Evolutionary Synthesis Center, Suite A200, 2024 West Main St., Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Margarita Baquero
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA
| | | | - Luis A Coloma
- Centro Jambatu de Investigación y Conservación de Anfibios, Fundación Otonga, Geovanni Farina 566 y Baltra, San Rafael, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Luciana K Erdtmann
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Albertina P Lima
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - David C Cannatella
- Department of Integrative Biology and Texas Natural History Collections, University of Texas, 1 University Station C0990, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pegram KV, Han HA, Rutowski RL. Warning Signal Efficacy: Assessing the Effects of Color, Iridescence, and Time of Day in the Field. Ethology 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Hanh A. Han
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe AZ USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
María Arenas L, Walter D, Stevens M. Signal honesty and predation risk among a closely related group of aposematic species. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11021. [PMID: 26046332 PMCID: PMC4457162 DOI: 10.1038/srep11021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals have bright colours to warn predators that they have defences and are not worth attacking. However, it remains unclear whether the strength of warning colours reliably indicate levels of defence. Few studies have unambiguously established if warning signals are honest, and have rarely considered predator vision or conspicuousness against the background. Importantly, little data exists either on how differences in signal strength translate into survival advantages. Ladybirds exhibit impressive variation in coloration both among and within species. Here we demonstrate that different levels of toxicity exist among and within ladybird species, and that signal contrast against the background is a good predictor of toxicity, showing that the colours are honest signals. Furthermore, field experiments with ladybird models created with regards to predator vision show that models with lower conspicuousness were attacked more frequently. This provides one of the most comprehensive studies on signal honesty in warning coloration to date.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lina María Arenas
- 1] Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, CB2 3EJ, UK [2] Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Dominic Walter
- Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Galarza JA, Nokelainen O, Ashrafi R, Hegna RH, Mappes J. Temporal relationship between genetic and warning signal variation in the aposematic wood tiger moth (Parasemia plantaginis). Mol Ecol 2014; 23:4939-57. [PMID: 25211063 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many plants and animals advertise unpalatability through warning signals in the form of colour and shape. Variation in warning signals within local populations is not expected because they are subject to directional selection. However, mounting evidence of warning signal variation within local populations suggests that other selective forces may be acting. Moreover, different selective pressures may act on the individual components of a warning signal. At present, we have a limited understanding about how multiple selection processes operate simultaneously on warning signal components, and even less about their temporal and spatial dynamics. Here, we examined temporal variation of several wing warning signal components (colour, UV-reflectance, signal size and pattern) of two co-occurring colour morphs of the aposematic wood tiger moth (Parasemia plantaginis). Sampling was carried out in four geographical regions over three consecutive years. We also evaluated each morph's temporal genetic structure by analysing mitochondrial sequence data and nuclear microsatellite markers. Our results revealed temporal differences between the morphs for most signal components measured. Moreover, variation occurred differently in the fore- and hindwings. We found no differences in the genetic structure between the morphs within years and regions, suggesting single local populations. However, local genetic structure fluctuated temporally. Negative correlations were found between variation produced by neutrally evolving genetic markers and those of the different signal components, indicating a non-neutral evolution for most warning signal components. Taken together, our results suggest that differential selection on warning signal components and fluctuating population structure can be one explanation for the maintenance of warning signal variation in this aposematic species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan A Galarza
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9, Jyväskylä, 40500, Finland
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Werner SJ, DeLiberto ST, Pettit SE, Mangan AM. Synergistic effect of an ultraviolet feeding cue for an avian repellent and protection of agricultural crops. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
24
|
Mappes J, Kokko H, Ojala K, Lindström L. Seasonal changes in predator community switch the direction of selection for prey defences. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5016. [PMID: 25247589 PMCID: PMC4199109 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect communities consist of aposematic species with efficient warning colours against predation, as well as abundant examples of crypsis. To understand such coexistence, we here report results from a field experiment where relative survival of artificial larvae, varying in conspicuousness, was estimated in natural bird communities over an entire season. This takes advantage of natural variation in the proportion of naive predators: naivety peaks when young birds have just fledged. We show that the relative benefit of warning signals and crypsis changes accordingly. When naive birds are rare (early and late in the season), conspicuous warning signals improve survival, but conspicuousness becomes a disadvantage near the fledging time of birds. Such temporal structuring of predator-prey relationships facilitates the coexistence of diverse antipredatory strategies and helps explain two patterns we found in a 688-species community of Lepidoterans: larval warning signals remain rare and occur disproportionately often in seasons when predators are educated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box, 35, Jyväskylä FI- 40014, Finland
| | - Hanna Kokko
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, Department of Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Canberra, Australia
| | - Katja Ojala
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box, 35, Jyväskylä FI- 40014, Finland
| | - Leena Lindström
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box, 35, Jyväskylä FI- 40014, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Arenas LM, Troscianko J, Stevens M. Color contrast and stability as key elements for effective warning signals. Front Ecol Evol 2014. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2014.00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
26
|
Relative effectiveness of blue and orange warning colours in the contexts of innate avoidance, learning and generalization. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
27
|
|
28
|
Fabricant SA, Exnerová A, Ježová D, Štys P. Scared by shiny? The value of iridescence in aposematic signalling of the hibiscus harlequin bug. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
29
|
|
30
|
Ibáñez A, Marzal A, López P, Martín J. Sexually dichromatic coloration reflects size and immunocompetence in female Spanish terrapins, Mauremys leprosa. Naturwissenschaften 2013; 100:1137-47. [PMID: 24253419 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-013-1118-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have shown the importance of colorful ornamentation in mate choosiness or intrasexual conflict. However, research on color ornaments has focused mainly on birds, lizards or fish, but remains practically unknown in other animal groups such as turtles. In addition, female ornaments and their relation with sexual selection also remain almost unknown. Here, we measured the coloration of the shell and the limb stripes of male and female Spanish terrapins Mauremys leprosa and explored the existence of sexual dichromatism and the relation of color characteristics with body size and health state estimated from the immune response to the injection of an antigen (phytohaemagglutinin test). Our results showed that shell coloration, which could be constrained by natural selection to be cryptic, changed with body size, but did not differ between sexes. In contrast, females had brighter and less ultraviolet-saturated and more orange-saturated limb stripes than males. In females, interindividual variation in limb stripe coloration was related with body size and immune response suggesting that this coloration may inform honestly about multiple traits that could be important in sexual selection. In contrast, coloration of limb stripes of males was duller than in females, and was not related with any trait suggesting that coloration is not important in sexual selection for males.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Ibáñez
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, C.S.I.C., José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, E-28006, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Werner SJ, Tupper SK, Carlson JC, Pettit SE, Ellis JW, Linz GM. The role of a generalized ultraviolet cue for blackbird food selection. Physiol Behav 2012; 106:597-601. [PMID: 22525492 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Birds utilize ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths for plumage signaling and sexual selection. Ultraviolet cues may also be used for the process of avian food selection. The aim of our study was to investigate whether a UV cue and a postingestive repellent can be used to condition food avoidance in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). We found that birds conditioned with an UV-absorbent, postingestive repellent subsequently avoided UV-absorbent food. Thus, the UV-absorbent cue (coupled with 0-20% of the conditioned repellent concentration) was used to maintain avoidance for up to 18 days post-conditioning. Similarly, birds conditioned with the UV-absorbent, postingestive repellent subsequently avoided UV-reflective food. Thus, conditioned avoidance of an UV-absorbent cue can be generalized to an unconditioned, UV-reflective cue for nutrient selection and toxin avoidance. These findings support the hypothesized function of UV vision for avian food selection, the implications of which remain to be explored for the sensory and behavioral ecology within agronomic and natural environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott J Werner
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154, United States.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Stevens M, Ruxton GD. Linking the evolution and form of warning coloration in nature. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:417-26. [PMID: 22113031 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals are toxic or unpalatable and signal this to predators with warning signals (aposematism). Aposematic appearance has long been a classical system to study predator-prey interactions, communication and signalling, and animal behaviour and learning. The area has received considerable empirical and theoretical investigation. However, most research has centred on understanding the initial evolution of aposematism, despite the fact that these studies often tell us little about the form and diversity of real warning signals in nature. In contrast, less attention has been given to the mechanistic basis of aposematic markings; that is, 'what makes an effective warning signal?', and the efficacy of warning signals has been neglected. Furthermore, unlike other areas of adaptive coloration research (such as camouflage and mate choice), studies of warning coloration have often been slow to address predator vision and psychology. Here, we review the current understanding of warning signal form, with an aim to comprehend the diversity of warning signals in nature. We present hypotheses and suggestions for future work regarding our current understanding of several inter-related questions covering the form of warning signals and their relationship with predator vision, learning, and links to broader issues in evolutionary ecology such as mate choice and speciation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Stevens
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Olofsson M, Vallin A, Jakobsson S, Wiklund C. Marginal eyespots on butterfly wings deflect bird attacks under low light intensities with UV wavelengths. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10798. [PMID: 20520736 PMCID: PMC2875403 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Predators preferentially attack vital body parts to avoid prey escape. Consequently, prey adaptations that make predators attack less crucial body parts are expected to evolve. Marginal eyespots on butterfly wings have long been thought to have this deflective, but hitherto undemonstrated function. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we report that a butterfly, Lopinga achine, with broad-spectrum reflective white scales in its marginal eyespot pupils deceives a generalist avian predator, the blue tit, to attack the marginal eyespots, but only under particular conditions—in our experiments, low light intensities with a prominent UV component. Under high light intensity conditions with a similar UV component, and at low light intensities without UV, blue tits directed attacks towards the butterfly head. Conclusions/Significance In nature, birds typically forage intensively at early dawn, when the light environment shifts to shorter wavelengths, and the contrast between the eyespot pupils and the background increases. Among butterflies, deflecting attacks is likely to be particularly important at dawn when low ambient temperatures make escape by flight impossible, and when insectivorous birds typically initiate another day's search for food. Our finding that the deflective function of eyespots is highly dependent on the ambient light environment helps explain why previous attempts have provided little support for the deflective role of marginal eyespots, and we hypothesize that the mechanism that we have discovered in our experiments in a laboratory setting may function also in nature when birds forage on resting butterflies under low light intensities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Olofsson
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Honkavaara J, Koivula M, Korpimäki E, Siitari H, Viitala J. Ultraviolet vision and foraging in terrestrial vertebrates. OIKOS 2008. [DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.980315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
35
|
Werner SJ, Kimball BA, Provenza FD. Food color, flavor, and conditioned avoidance among red-winged blackbirds. Physiol Behav 2008; 93:110-7. [PMID: 17804026 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2006] [Revised: 07/31/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between food flavors and postingestive feedback enables mammalian herbivores to procure nutrients and avoid toxins within ever-changing environments. We conducted four experiments with red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in captivity to determine the relative roles of color and flavor cues paired with negative postingestive feedback. We first conducted baseline tests to assess preferences for colors and flavors. All blackbirds preferred red- to blue-colored food, and they preferred umami- (l-alanine) flavored to bitter/astringent food (tannic acid). We observed no difference in consumption of salty (NaCl) vs sour (citric acid) foods during baseline tests (i.e., neutral flavors). We then conditioned experimentally naïve blackbirds with intraperitoneal injections of lithium chloride (LiCl) to avoid food treated with red and l-alanine, or red and NaCl (n=30 birds per conditioning group). Subsequent to conditioning with LiCl, three test groups were established from each conditioned group to evaluate color and flavor preferences, and preferences for novel color-flavor pairings (e.g., red/tannic acid vs blue/l-alanine). Blackbirds avoided red and salty food throughout the 4-day test. Avoidance conditioned with LiCl extinguished for preferred flavors, but not for colors, of food. Conditioning affected indifference for the otherwise preferred flavor and avoidance for the otherwise neutral flavor. Relative to the neutral-flavor conditioning group, the group conditioned with a preferred flavor exhibited stronger conditioned avoidance of colored food. Unlike conditioned flavor avoidance, birds were conditioned to avoid red food only when blue food was made familiar prior to conditioning. Collectively, these results illustrate that blackbirds used affective processes (flavor-feedback relationships) to shift preference for both novel and familiar flavors, and cognitive associations (colors) to avoid food, subsequent to toxin exposure. We discuss the opportunities afforded by affective and cognitive processing for reducing agricultural damage caused by blackbirds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott J Werner
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154, United States.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
|
37
|
Ham AD, Ihalainen E, Lindström L, Mappes J. Does colour matter? The importance of colour in avoidance learning, memorability and generalisation. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-006-0190-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
38
|
|
39
|
|
40
|
Lyytinen A, Lindström L, Mappes J. Ultraviolet reflection and predation risk in diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera. Behav Ecol 2004. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arh102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
41
|
Endler JA, Mappes J. Predator Mixes and the Conspicuousness of Aposematic Signals. Am Nat 2004; 163:532-47. [PMID: 15122501 DOI: 10.1086/382662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2003] [Accepted: 10/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Conspicuous warning signals of unprofitable prey are a defense against visually hunting predators. They work because predators learn to associate unprofitability with bright coloration and because strong signals are detectable and memorable. However, many species that can be considered defended are not very conspicuous; they have weak warning signals. This phenomenon has previously been ignored in models and experiments. In addition, there is significant within- and among-species variation among predators in their search behavior, in their visual, cognitive, and learning abilities, and in their resistance to defenses. In this article we explore the effects of variable predators on models that combine positive frequency-dependent, frequency-independent, and negative frequency-dependent predation and show that weak signaling of aposematic species can evolve if predators vary in their tendency to attack defended prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Endler
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Lindström L. Experimental Approaches to Studying the Initial Evolution of Conspicuous Aposematic Signalling. Evol Ecol 1999. [DOI: 10.1023/a:1011004129607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|