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Cassier-Chauvat C, Marceau F, Farci S, Ouchane S, Chauvat F. The Glutathione System: A Journey from Cyanobacteria to Higher Eukaryotes. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1199. [PMID: 37371929 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
From bacteria to plants and humans, the glutathione system plays a pleiotropic role in cell defense against metabolic, oxidative and metal stresses. Glutathione (GSH), the γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine nucleophile tri-peptide, is the central player of this system that acts in redox homeostasis, detoxification and iron metabolism in most living organisms. GSH directly scavenges diverse reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as singlet oxygen, superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide and carbon radicals. It also serves as a cofactor for various enzymes, such as glutaredoxins (Grxs), glutathione peroxidases (Gpxs), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), which play crucial roles in cell detoxication. This review summarizes what is known concerning the GSH-system (GSH, GSH-derived metabolites and GSH-dependent enzymes) in selected model organisms (Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana and human), emphasizing cyanobacteria for the following reasons. Cyanobacteria are environmentally crucial and biotechnologically important organisms that are regarded as having evolved photosynthesis and the GSH system to protect themselves against the ROS produced by their active photoautotrophic metabolism. Furthermore, cyanobacteria synthesize the GSH-derived metabolites, ergothioneine and phytochelatin, that play crucial roles in cell detoxication in humans and plants, respectively. Cyanobacteria also synthesize the thiol-less GSH homologs ophthalmate and norophthalmate that serve as biomarkers of various diseases in humans. Hence, cyanobacteria are well-suited to thoroughly analyze the role/specificity/redundancy of the players of the GSH-system using a genetic approach (deletion/overproduction) that is hardly feasible with other model organisms (E. coli and S. cerevisiae do not synthesize ergothioneine, while plants and humans acquire it from their soil and their diet, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Cassier-Chauvat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Fanny Marceau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Sandrine Farci
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Soufian Ouchane
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Franck Chauvat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Characterization of glutamate‐cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase from the δ‐proteobacterium
Myxococcus xanthus. Proteins 2022; 90:1547-1560. [DOI: 10.1002/prot.26333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hassan NM, Nemat Alla MM. Kinetics of inhibition of isoproturon to glutathione-associated enzymes in wheat. PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 26:1505-1518. [PMID: 32647464 PMCID: PMC7326839 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-020-00812-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed at investigating the kinetic of inhibition of isoproturon to the GSH-associated enzymes [γ-glutamyl-cysteine synthetase (γ-GCS), glutathione synthetase (GS), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)] in wheat. Isoproturon, applied to 10-day-old seedlings for the following 12 days, provoked significant reductions in shoot fresh and dry weights, protein, thiols and glutathione (GSH); however, oxidized glutathione (GSSG) was elevated while GSH/GSSG ratio was declined with concomitant significant inhibitions in the activities of γ-GCS, GS, GR, GST and GPX; the effect was time dependent. IC50 and Ki values of isoproturon were lowest for GPX, highest for both GST and GR, and moderate for both γ-GCS and GS. The herbicide markedly decreased Vmax of γ-GCS, GS and GPX but unchanged that of GST and GR; however, Km of γ-GCS, GS, GST and GR increased but unchanged for GPX. The pattern of response of changing Vmax, Km, Vmax/Km, kcat and kcat/Km for in vivo and in vitro tests of each enzyme seemed most likely similar. These results indicate that a malfunction to defense system was induced in wheat by isoproturon resulting in inhibitions in GSH-associated enzymes, the magnitude of inhibition was most pronounced in GPX followed by γ-GCS, GS, GST, and GR. These findings could conclude that isoproturon competitively inhibited GST and GR; however, the inhibition was noncompetitive for GPX but mixed for both γ-GCS and GS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nemat M. Hassan
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, PO 34517, New Damietta, Egypt
| | - Mamdouh M. Nemat Alla
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, PO 34517, New Damietta, Egypt
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Probing the origins of glutathione biosynthesis through biochemical analysis of glutamate-cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase from a model photosynthetic prokaryote. Biochem J 2013; 450:63-72. [PMID: 23170977 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione biosynthesis catalysed by GCL (glutamate-cysteine ligase) and GS (glutathione synthetase) is essential for maintaining redox homoeostasis and protection against oxidative damage in diverse eukaroytes and bacteria. This biosynthetic pathway probably evolved in cyanobacteria with the advent of oxygenic photosynthesis, but the biochemical characteristics of progenitor GCLs and GSs in these organisms are largely unexplored. In the present study we examined SynGCL and SynGS from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using steady-state kinetics. Although SynGCL shares ~15% sequence identity with the enzyme from plants and α-proteobacteria, sequence comparison suggests that these enzymes share similar active site residues. Biochemically, SynGCL lacks the redox regulation associated with the plant enzymes and functions as a monomeric protein, indicating that evolution of redox regulation occurred later in the green lineage. Site-directed mutagenesis of SynGCL establishes this enzyme as part of the plant-like GCL family and identifies a catalytically essential arginine residue, which is structurally conserved across all forms of GCLs, including those from non-plant eukaryotes and γ-proteobacteria. A reaction mechanism for the synthesis of γ-glutamylcysteine by GCLs is proposed. Biochemical and kinetic analysis of SynGS reveals that this enzyme shares properties with other prokaryotic GSs. Initial velocity and product inhibition studies used to examine the kinetic mechanism of SynGS suggest that it and other prokaryotic GSs uses a random ter-reactant mechanism for the synthesis of glutathione. The present study provides new insight on the molecular mechanisms and evolution of glutathione biosynthesis; a key process required for enhancing bioenergy production in photosynthetic organisms.
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Lagos CF, Araya-Secchi R, Thomas P, Pérez-Acle T, Tapia RA, Salas CO. Molecular modeling of Trypanosoma cruzi glutamate cysteine ligase and investigation of its interactions with glutathione. J Mol Model 2012; 18:2055-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00894-011-1224-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Cameron JC, Pakrasi HB. Essential role of glutathione in acclimation to environmental and redox perturbations in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 154:1672-85. [PMID: 20935175 PMCID: PMC2996012 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.162990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione, a nonribosomal thiol tripeptide, has been shown to be critical for many processes in plants. Much less is known about the roles of glutathione in cyanobacteria, oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes that are the evolutionary precursor of the chloroplast. An understanding of glutathione metabolism in cyanobacteria is expected to provide novel insight into the evolution of the elaborate and extensive pathways that utilize glutathione in photosynthetic organisms. To investigate the function of glutathione in cyanobacteria, we generated deletion mutants of glutamate-cysteine ligase (gshA) and glutathione synthetase (gshB) in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Complete segregation of the ΔgshA mutation was not achieved, suggesting that GshA activity is essential for growth. In contrast, fully segregated ΔgshB mutants were isolated and characterized. The ΔgshB strain lacks reduced glutathione (GSH) but instead accumulates the precursor compound γ-glutamylcysteine (γ-EC). The ΔgshB strain grows slower than the wild-type strain under favorable conditions and exhibits extremely reduced growth or death when subjected to conditions promoting oxidative stress. Furthermore, we analyzed thiol contents in the wild type and the ΔgshB mutant after subjecting the strains to multiple environmental and redox perturbations. We found that conditions promoting growth stimulate glutathione biosynthesis. We also determined that cellular GSH and γ-EC content decline following exposure to dark and blue light and during photoheterotrophic growth. Moreover, a rapid depletion of GSH and γ-EC is observed in the wild type and the ΔgshB strain, respectively, when cells are starved for nitrate or sulfate.
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Wu J, Qu T, Chen S, Zhao Z, An L. Molecular cloning and characterization of a gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene from Chorispora bungeana. PROTOPLASMA 2009; 235:27-36. [PMID: 19082776 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-008-0026-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Accepted: 11/14/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Chorispora bungeana Fisch. and C.A. Mey (C. bungeana) is a rare alpine subnival plant species that is highly tolerant of freezing temperatures. Glutathione (GSH) is a major player in various metabolic processes involved in plant growth and development and stress responses. A recent study has found that the inhibition of GSH synthesis decreases the chilling tolerance of C. bungeana callus (J. Wu et al.: Cryobiology 57:9-17, 2008). We have isolated and characterized a full-length cDNA encoding gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (Cb gamma ECS), the key enzyme of GSH synthesis, from the leaves of C. bungeana, with the aim of furthering our understanding of the role of GSH at the molecular level. Cb gamma ECS was found to encode a 524-amino acid protein with moderate to high nucleotide sequence similar to previously reported plant gamma-ECS genes. Cb gamma ECS transcripts were detected in the calluses, roots and leaves of C. bungeana, but there was no tissue-specific expression. The transcripts of Cb gamma ECS accumulated both rapidly and at high levels when C. bungeana was treated with chilling (4 degrees C), freezing (-4 degrees C), several other environmental stresses (such as heat, salinity, osmotic and heavy metals), abscisic acid and hydrogen peroxide. These results suggest that Cb gamma ECS may participate in the cellular responses against multiple environmental stimuli in C. bungeana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmin Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Arid and Grassland Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
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Gromes R, Hothorn M, Lenherr ED, Rybin V, Scheffzek K, Rausch T. The redox switch of gamma-glutamylcysteine ligase via a reversible monomer-dimer transition is a mechanism unique to plants. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 54:1063-75. [PMID: 18346196 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2008.03477.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the first committed enzyme for glutathione biosynthesis, gamma-glutamylcysteine ligase (GCL), is under multiple controls. The recent elucidation of GCL structure from Brassica juncea (BjGCL) has revealed the presence of two intramolecular disulfide bridges (CC1, CC2), which both strongly impact on GCL activity in vitro. Here we demonstrate that cysteines of CC1 are confined to plant species from the Rosids clade, and are absent in other plant families. Conversely, cysteines of CC2 involved in the monomer-dimer transition in BjGCL are not only conserved in the plant kingdom, but are also conserved in the evolutionarily related alpha- (and some gamma-) proteobacterial GCLs. Focusing on the role of CC2 for GCL redox regulation, we have extended our analysis to all available plant (31; including moss and algal) and related proteobacterial GCL (46) protein sequences. Amino acids contributing to the homodimer interface in BjGCL are highly conserved among plant GCLs, but are not conserved in related proteobacterial GCLs. To probe the significance of this distinction, recombinant GCLs from Nicotiana tabacum (NtGCL), Agrobacterium tumefaciens (AtuGCL, alpha-proteobacteria) and Xanthomonas campestris (XcaGCL, gamma-proteobacteria) were analyzed for their redox response. As expected, NtGCL forms a homodimer under oxidizing conditions, and is activated more than threefold. Conversely, proteobacterial GCLs remain monomeric under oxidizing and reducing conditions, and their activities are not inhibited by DTT, despite the presence of CC2. We conclude that although plant GCLs are evolutionarily related to proteobacterial GCLs, redox regulation of their GCLs via CC2-dependent dimerization has been acquired later in evolution, possibly as a consequence of compartmentation in the redox-modulated plastid environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Gromes
- Heidelberg Institute for Plant Sciences, Molecular Ecophysiology, Im Neuenheimer Feld 360, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Shibagaki N, Grossman A. The State of Sulfur Metabolism in Algae: From Ecology to Genomics. SULFUR METABOLISM IN PHOTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6863-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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