Radiological remission and recovery of thirst appreciation after infliximab therapy in adipsic diabetes insipidus secondary to neurosarcoidosis

When Thirst Ceases to Exist: A Case Report and Literature Review of Adipsic Diabetes Insipidus Following Coil Embolization of a Ruptured Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm

Diabetes insipidus is a condition characterized by inappropriately dilute urine in the setting of serum hyperosmolality. The two predominant subtypes include central (from lack of vasopressin production) and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (from renal resistance to circulating vasopressin). A common manifestation is the significant pursuant thirst from excessive polyuria. We present a case report and literature review of an infrequent variation of central diabetes insipidus known as adipsic (hypothalamic) diabetes insipidus, characterized by the absence of thirst, secondary to coiling of a ruptured anterior communicating artery aneurysm. Due to the loss of thirst, patients are at a heightened risk for hypernatremia and complications secondary to dehydration. Our patient's course was complicated by recurrent polyuria and hypernatremia, requiring a fixed-dose desmopressin regimen. On follow-up, only partial thirst sensation was restored. We provide a literature review to compare our case report to the scant literature available to broaden the awareness of this infrequent, perilous, manifestation.

Potential indication of chemotherapy for hypodipsia and arginine vasopressin deficiency secondary to hypothalamic-pituitary Langerhans cell histiocytosis: a case report and literature review

Hypothalamic-pituitary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (HP-LCH) is often associated with arginine vasopressin deficiency (AVD). Patients with AVD caused by HP-LCH rarely develop an impaired osmotic threshold for thirst (OTT). Improvement in OTT among such patients has not been reported in the literature. To our knowledge, here we report the first case of AVD due to HP-LCH in which hypodipsia resolved during chemotherapy. A nine-year-old Japanese girl presented with polydipsia, polyuria, anorexia, and hypernatremia (149.8 mEq/L) and was diagnosed with AVD secondary to HP-LCH. Visual analog scale examination showed a reduced OTT following the water deprivation test. During chemotherapy for Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), serum sodium concentrations became stable between 138.9 and 142.9 mEq/L under the replacement of desmopressin. Repeated visual analog scale examinations showed that she experienced a sense of thirst at a serum sodium concentration of 142.3-144.6 mEq/L, at which she did not experience any thirst prior to the initiation of chemotherapy. These data suggest that chemotherapy directly improved the OTT in our patient. Improved mechanical compression or infiltration of the hypothalamus related to OTT may lead to the recovery of the sense of thirst. This report highlights the potential role of chemotherapy for solitary HP-LCH in patients with hypodipsia and AVD.

Neurosarcoidosis: The Presentation, Diagnosis and Treatment Review of Two Cases

Sarcoidosis is a chronic granulomatous disease of unknown cause characterized by the presence of non-caseating granulomas. The disease can affect any organ including the nervous system. Neurosarcoidosis occurs in about 5% patients with sarcoidosis. The clinical presentation of neurosarcoidosis is varied, and it can involve the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system, separately or in different combinations. The diagnosis of neurosarcoidosis is challenging, as biopsies from the nervous system are not readily available. Anti-TNFα agents are becoming one of the cornerstone treatments for neurosarcoidosis. In this case-based review, we discuss two cases of neurosarcoidosis with different clinical presentations. The first patient presented with confusion, while the second presented with walking difficulty and neurogenic bladder. Both patients were treated with methylprednisolone pulse therapy with rapid, but non-complete, improvement. Therefore, infliximab was initiated in both cases with subsequent improvement in the clinical manifestations and imaging findings, emphasizing the effectiveness and safety of infliximab in cases of severe neurosarcoidosis. In conclusion, the goal of neurosarcoidosis management is to prevent organ system damage and minimize the toxic cumulative adverse effects of glucocorticoid use. In this case-based review we discuss the various presentations, the diagnosis and the treatment of neurosarcoidosis.

Diagnosis and Management of Central Diabetes Insipidus in Adults

Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is a clinical syndrome which results from loss or impaired function of vasopressinergic neurons in the hypothalamus/posterior pituitary, resulting in impaired synthesis and/or secretion of arginine vasopressin (AVP). AVP deficiency leads to the inability to concentrate urine and excessive renal water losses, resulting in a clinical syndrome of hypotonic polyuria with compensatory thirst. CDI is caused by diverse etiologies, although it typically develops due to neoplastic, traumatic, or autoimmune destruction of AVP-synthesizing/secreting neurons. This review focuses on the diagnosis and management of CDI, providing insights into the physiological disturbances underpinning the syndrome. Recent developments in diagnostic techniques, particularly the development of the copeptin assay, have improved accuracy and acceptability of the diagnostic approach to the hypotonic polyuria syndrome. We discuss the management of CDI with particular emphasis on management of fluid intake and pharmacological replacement of AVP. Specific clinical syndromes such as adipsic diabetes insipidus and diabetes insipidus in pregnancy as well as management of the perioperative patient with diabetes insipidus are also discussed.

Adipsic diabetes insipidus

Adipsic diabetes insipidus (ADI) is a rare but devastating disorder of water balance with significant associated morbidity and mortality. Most patients develop the disease as a result of hypothalamic destruction from a variety of underlying etiologies. Damage to osmolar-responsive neuroreceptors, primarily within the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, results in impaired production and release of arginine vasopressin (AVP). Important regulating circuits of thirst sense and drive are regionally colocalized with AVP centers and therefore are also injured. Patients with central diabetes insipidus with impaired thirst response, defined as ADI, suffer from wide swings of plasma osmolality resulting in repeated hospitalization, numerous associated comorbidities, and significant mortality. Treatment recommendations are based largely on expert advice from case series owing to the rarity of disease prevalence. Acute disease management focuses on fixed dosing of antidiuretic hormone analogues and calculated prescriptions of obligate daily water intake. Long-term care requires patient/family education, frequent reassessment of clinical and biochemical parameters, as well as screening and treatment of comorbidities.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis Dysfunction, Central Diabetes Insipidus, and Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion as the First Clinical Presentation of Neurosarcoidosis: Why Early Diagnosis and Treatment is Important?

Sarcoidosis is defined by granuloma formation in a multitude of organs. Despite its rare involvement in the nervous system, there are a number of cases that identify neurological symptoms to be the initial clinical manifestation of sarcoidosis. The involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) axis presented most frequently with hormone deficiencies. Studies have reported that damage to the pituitary gland may be irreversible, and hormone abnormalities were generally permanent. Neurosarcoidosis has been described as the underlying cause of central diabetes insipidus (DI) and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion. The pathological mechanism that can lead both to deficiency and excess of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion is still not fully understood. It has been shown that diagnosis of neurosarcoidosis remains challenging, as symptoms can be inconclusive and diagnostic tools are not sufficiently sensitive and specific. Early treatment may potentially reverse pituitary deficiencies, although studies to confirm this hypothesis are minimal. This review article aims to increase knowledge about central DI and SIADH caused by neurosarcoidosis, identify possible difficulties in diagnosis, and discuss the importance of early management. Clinical trials investigating the long-term therapeutic response in patients with HP sarcoidosis are essential, as there are currently no established guidelines for the treatment of neurosarcoidosis.

Management of central diabetes insipidus

The treatment of central diabetes insipidus has not changed significantly in recent decades, and dDAVP and replacement of free water deficit remain the cornerstones of treatment. Oral dDAVP has replaced nasal dDAVP as a more reliable mode of treatment for chronic central diabetes insipidus. Hyponatraemia is a common side effect, occurring in one in four patients, and should be avoided by allowing a regular break from dDAVP to allow a resultant aquaresis. Hypernatraemia is less common, and typically occurs during hospitalization, when access to water is restricted, and in cases of adipsic DI. Management of adipsic DI can be challenging, and requires initial inpatient assessment to establish dose of dDAVP, daily fluid prescription, and eunatraemic weight which can guide day-to-day fluid targets in the long-term.

Adipsic Diabetes Insipidus-The Challenging Combination of Polyuria and Adipsia: A Case Report and Review of Literature

Adipsic Diabetes Insipidus is a rare hypothalamic disorder characterized by a loss of thirst in response to hypernatraemia accompanied by diabetes insipidus. These occur secondary to a congregation of defects in the homeostatic mechanisms of water balance. A 27-year old Chinese female presented with Adipsic Diabetes Insipidus after cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM) surgery. Initial diagnosis and management was extremely challenging. Long term management required a careful interplay between low dose vasopressin analog treatment and fluids. Detailed charts of medication and sodium balance are described in the case presentation. We performed a literature search of similarly reported cases and describe the possible pathogenesis, etiology, clinical presentation, acute and chronic management, and prognosis.

Diagnosis and management of central diabetes insipidus in adults

Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is characterized by hypotonic polyuria due to impairment of AVP secretion from the posterior pituitary. In clinical practice, it needs to be distinguished from renal resistance to the antidiuretic effects of AVP (nephrogenic DI), and abnormalities of thirst appreciation (primary polydipsia). As nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is rare in adults, unless they are treated with lithium salts, the practical challenge is how to differentiate between CDI and clinical disorders of excess thirst. The differential diagnosis is usually straight forward, but the recommended gold standard test, the water deprivation test, is not without interpretative pitfalls. The addition of the measurement of plasma AVP concentrations improves diagnostic accuracy, but the radioimmunoassay for AVP is technically difficult, and is only available in a few specialized centres. More recently, the measurement of plasma copeptin concentrations has been claimed to provide a reliable alternative to measurement of plasma AVP, without the sampling handling challenges. In addition, the measurement of thirst ratings can help the differentiation between CDI and primary polydipsia. Once the diagnosis of CDI is biochemically certain, investigations to determine the cause of AVP deficiency are needed. In this review, we will outline the diagnostic approach to polyuria, revisit the caveats of the water deprivation test and review recent data on value of adding AVP/copeptin measurement. We will also discuss treatment strategies for CDI, with analysis of potential complications of treatment.

Adipsic diabetes insipidus in adult patients

INTRODUCTION

Adipsic diabetes insipidus (ADI) is a very rare disorder, characterized by hypotonic polyuria due to arginine vasopressin (AVP) deficiency and failure to generate the sensation of thirst in response to hypernatraemia. As the sensation of thirst is the key homeostatic mechanism that prevents hypernatraemic dehydration in patients with untreated diabetes insipidus (DI), adipsia leads to failure to respond to aquaresis with appropriate fluid intake. This predisposes to the development of significant hypernatraemia, which is the typical biochemical manifestation of adipsic DI.

METHODS

A literature search was performed to review the background, etiology, management and associated complications of this rare condition.

RESULTS

ADI has been reported to occur in association with clipping of an anterior communicating artery aneurysm following subarachnoid haemorrhage, major hypothalamic surgery, traumatic brain injury and toluene exposure among other conditions. Management is very difficult and patients are prone to marked changes in plasma sodium concentration, in particular to the development of severe hypernatraemia. Associated hypothalamic disorders, such as severe obesity, sleep apnoea and thermoregulatory disorders are often observed in patients with ADI.

CONCLUSION

The management of ADI is challenging and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Prognosis is variable; hypothalamic complications lead to early death in some patients, but recent reports highlight the possibility of recovery of thirst.

Long-term outcomes of refractory neurosarcoidosis treated with infliximab

Central nervous system localizations of sarcoidosis may be refractory to conventional treatment such as steroids and immunosuppressive drugs. Infliximab, a TNF-α antagonist chimeric antibody, has been shown to be effective for treatment of these localizations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety, in particular the long-term outcomes, of the use of infliximab for the treatment of neurosarcoidosis. We retrospectively reviewed medical records of patients with neurosarcoidosis who had been treated with infliximab between 2009 and 2015. All patients had histologically proven non-caseating granulomas. Eighteen patients with histologically proven sarcoidosis were included in this study. All had neurological involvement consisting of meningeal (n = 16), cerebral (n = 10), spinal cord (n = 6), and/or optic nerve (n = 5) involvement. Sixteen patients had previously received at least one immunosuppressive drug in addition to corticosteroids, including cyclophosphamide in 11 patients. All patients received treatment with infliximab (3-7.5 mg/kg) associated with corticosteroids (n = 18), low-dose methotrexate (n = 15), azathioprine (n = 2), or mycophenolate (n = 1). Sixteen out of 18 patients improved clinically (initial median modified Rankin scale score of 3, final median score of 1; p < 0.0001). At 6 months after initiation of infliximab, six patients obtained complete remission (33%), ten attained partial remission (56%), and two had stable disease (11%). The median follow-up time was 20 months (range 6-93). Nine patients relapsed during follow-up (50%). Eight patients developed toxic side effects and seven of these side effects were infectious events. Infliximab is an efficacious treatment of refractory neurosarcoidosis. However, relapses frequently occurred during follow-up.

Pituitary stalk lesions: systematic review and clinical guidance

The spectrum of pituitary stalk (PS) pathology is vast, presenting a diagnostic challenge. Published large series of PS lesions demonstrate neoplastic conditions are most frequent, followed by inflammatory, infectious and congenital diseases. Inflammatory pathologies however, account for the majority of PS lesions in published small case series and case reports. Physicians must be familiar with the major differential diagnoses and necessary investigations. A comprehensive history and thorough clinical examination is critical. Although magnetic resonance imaging of the PS in disease is nonspecific, associated intracranial features may narrow the differential diagnosis. Initial investigations include basic pathology and computer tomography imaging of the neck, chest, abdomen and pelvis. Further investigations should be guided by the clinical context. PS biopsy should be considered when a diagnosis is regarded essential in centres where an experienced neurosurgeon is available. Treatment is dependent on the underlying disease process and may necessitate pituitary hormone replacement.

Heterogenous patterns of recovery of thirst in adult patients with adipsic diabetes insipidus

BACKGROUND

The natural history of adipsic diabetes insipidus (ADI) is not well described, and reports of recovery of thirst are rare.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Case histories presentation. ADI was identified by demonstrating absent thirst and arginine vasopressin (AVP) responses to hypertonic saline infusion.

RESULTS

Twelve patients with ADI were identified (craniopharyngioma 5, anterior communicating artery aneurysm (ACOM) repair 4, congenital 1, neurosarcoidosis 1, prolactinoma 1). Three patients died. Six patients had permanent ADI. Three patients had recovery of thirst, with a heterogenous pattern of recovery. In the first case, ADI had developed after clipping of an ACOM aneurysm. Ten years after surgery; he sensed the return of thirst; repeated hypertonic saline infusion showed recovery of thirst and AVP secretion. In the second case, a 41-year-old female with an intrasellar craniopharyngioma developed post-operative ADI with persistent hypernatremia. Two years post-operatively, she complained of thirst, and hypertonic saline infusion showed normalization of thirst but absent AVP responses, confirming recovery of thirst, but with persistent diabetes insipidus (DI). In the third case, a 29-year-old Caucasian had craniotomy and radiotherapy for craniopharyngioma and developed ADI post-operatively. Eight years post-op, she presented with thirst, seizures and pNa of 112 mmol/l. Hypertonic saline infusion showed persistent DI but thirst responses typical of compulsive water drinking; she has had recurrent hyponatraemia since then.

CONCLUSIONS

We report that 3/12 patients with ADI recovered thirst after longstanding adipsia with heterogenous pattern of recovery. Both the mortality of 25% and the recovery rate of 25% should be considered when planning long-term surveillance.

A Rare Case of Isolated Cerebral Sarcoidosis Presenting as Suprasellar Mass Lesion with Salt-Wasting Hypopituitarism

Background Sarcoidosis is a systemic disorder of unknown origin characterized by noncaseating granulomas. Clinical symptoms due to central nervous system (CNS) involvement occur in 5 to 7% of all cases; subclinical involvement is more frequent. Sole CNS involvement is very rare.

Case Report A 25-year-old man presented with increasing polyuria and polydipsia over 8 weeks. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a supra- and infra-chiasmatic pre-thalamic mass lesion 1.0 × 1.4 × 1.4cm in diameter. Microsurgical biopsy verified a necrotizing noncaseating epithelioid cell tumor indicative for neurosarcoidosis. All symptoms dissolved within 3 months under stringent corticoid therapy.

Conclusion Intracranial mass lesions as the primary and only manifestation of neuronal sarcoidosis are rare. Because conservative treatment is safe and effective, surgery is limited to biopsy and the alleviation of pressure-related symptoms to preserve neurologic function.

Management of disease-modifying treatments in neurological autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system

The therapeutic armamentarium for autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system, specifically multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica, is steadily increasing, with a large spectrum of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive agents targeting different mechanisms of the immune system. However, increasingly efficacious treatment options also entail higher potential for severe adverse drug reactions. Especially in cases failing first-line treatment, thorough evaluation of the risk-benefit profile of treatment alternatives is necessary. This argues for the need of algorithms to identify patients more likely to benefit from a specific treatment. Moreover, paradigms to stratify the risk for severe adverse drug reactions need to be established. In addition to clinical/paraclinical measures, biomarkers may aid in individualized risk-benefit assessment. A recent example is the routine testing for anti-John Cunningham virus antibodies in natalizumab-treated multiple sclerosis patients to assess the risk for the development of progressive multi-focal leucoencephalopathy. Refined algorithms for individualized risk assessment may also facilitate early initiation of induction treatment schemes in patient groups with high disease activity rather than classical escalation concepts. In this review, we will discuss approaches for individiualized risk-benefit assessment both for newly introduced agents as well as medications with established side-effect profiles. In addition to clinical parameters, we will also focus on biomarkers that may assist in patient selection.

Neurosarcoidosis: clinical review of a disorder with challenging inpatient presentations and diagnostic considerations

Neurosarcoidosis is frequently on the differential diagnosis for neurohospitalists. The diagnosis can be challenging due to the wide variety of clinical presentations as well as the limitations of noninvasive diagnostic testing. This article briefly touches on systemic features that may herald suspicion of this disorder and then expands in depth on the neurological clinical presentations. Common patterns of neurological presentations are reviewed and unusual presentations are also included. A discussion of noninvasive testing is undertaken, exploring dilemmas that may be encountered with sensitivity and specificity. Drawing from a broad range of clinical clues and diagnostic data, a systematic approach of pursuing a potential tissue diagnosis is then highlighted. Correctly diagnosing neurosarcoidosis is critical, as treatment with appropriate immunosuppression protocols can then be initiated. Additionally, treatment of refractory disease, the trend toward exploring targeted immunomodulation options, and other therapeutic issues are discussed.

Nonsteroidal therapy of sarcoidosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

None of the medications used in clinical practice to treat sarcoidosis have been approved by the regulatory authorities. Understanding how to use disease-modifying antisarcoid drugs, however, is essential for physicians treating patients with sarcoidosis. This review summarizes the recent studies of medications used for sarcoidosis with a focus on nonsteroidal therapies. Studies from 2006 to 2013 were considered for review to update clinicians on the most relevant literature published over the last few years.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several recently published pieces of evidence have helped expand our ability to more appropriately sequence second-line and third-line therapies for sarcoidosis. For instance, methotrexate and azathioprine may be useful and well tolerated medications as second-line treatment. Mycophenolate mofetil might have a role in neurosarcoidosis. TNF-α blockers and other biologics seem to be well tolerated medications for the most severely affected patients.

SUMMARY

Corticosteroids remain the first-line therapy for sarcoidosis as many patients never require treatment or only necessitate a short treatment duration. Second-line and third-line therapies described in this article should be used in patients with progressive or refractory disease or when life-threatening complications are evident at the time of presentation.