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Yao K, Hong G, Yuan X, Kong W, Xia P, Li Y, Chen Y, Liu N, He J, Shi J, Hu Z, Zhou Y, Xie Z, He Y. 3D Printing of Tough Hydrogel Scaffolds with Functional Surface Structures for Tissue Regeneration. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2024; 17:27. [PMID: 39342523 PMCID: PMC11439863 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-024-01524-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 09/01/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024]
Abstract
Hydrogel scaffolds have numerous potential applications in the tissue engineering field. However, tough hydrogel scaffolds implanted in vivo are seldom reported because it is difficult to balance biocompatibility and high mechanical properties. Inspired by Chinese ramen, we propose a universal fabricating method (printing-P, training-T, cross-linking-C, PTC & PCT) for tough hydrogel scaffolds to fill this gap. First, 3D printing fabricates a hydrogel scaffold with desired structures (P). Then, the scaffold could have extraordinarily high mechanical properties and functional surface structure by cycle mechanical training with salting-out assistance (T). Finally, the training results are fixed by photo-cross-linking processing (C). The tough gelatin hydrogel scaffolds exhibit excellent tensile strength of 6.66 MPa (622-fold untreated) and have excellent biocompatibility. Furthermore, this scaffold possesses functional surface structures from nanometer to micron to millimeter, which can efficiently induce directional cell growth. Interestingly, this strategy can produce bionic human tissue with mechanical properties of 10 kPa-10 MPa by changing the type of salt, and many hydrogels, such as gelatin and silk, could be improved with PTC or PCT strategies. Animal experiments show that this scaffold can effectively promote the new generation of muscle fibers, blood vessels, and nerves within 4 weeks, prompting the rapid regeneration of large-volume muscle loss injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Gaoying Hong
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Ximin Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Weicheng Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengcheng Xia
- Institute of Digital Medicine, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanrong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuewei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Nian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing He
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Jue Shi
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Zihe Hu
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanyan Zhou
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhijian Xie
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yong He
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang Province, College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
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Che Z, Sun Q, Zhao Z, Wu Y, Xing H, Song K, Chen A, Wang B, Cai M. Growth factor-functionalized titanium implants for enhanced bone regeneration: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 274:133153. [PMID: 38897500 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.133153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Titanium and titanium alloys are widely favored materials for orthopedic implants due to their exceptional mechanical properties and biological inertness. The additional benefit of sustained local release of bioactive substances further promotes bone tissue formation, thereby augmenting the osseointegration capacity of titanium implants and attracting increasing attention in bone tissue engineering. Among these bioactive substances, growth factors have shown remarkable osteogenic and angiogenic induction capabilities. Consequently, researchers have developed various physical, chemical, and biological loading techniques to incorporate growth factors into titanium implants, ensuring controlled release kinetics. In contrast to conventional treatment modalities, the localized release of growth factors from functionalized titanium implants not only enhances osseointegration but also reduces the risk of complications. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the types and mechanisms of growth factors, along with a detailed exploration of the methodologies used to load growth factors onto the surface of titanium implants. Moreover, it highlights recent advancements in the application of growth factors to the surface of titanium implants (Scheme 1). Finally, the review discusses current limitations and future prospects for growth factor-functionalized titanium implants. In summary, this paper presents cutting-edge design strategies aimed at enhancing the bone regenerative capacity of growth factor-functionalized titanium implants-a significant advancement in the field of enhanced bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenjia Che
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qi Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenyu Zhao
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanglin Wu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Hu Xing
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaihang Song
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Aopan Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ming Cai
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 301 Middle Yanchang Road, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China.
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Jiang W, Yao X, Zhong J, Ouyang Z, Shen J, Qiu Y, Zeng Y. Spatial confinement modulates endothelial cell behavior and traction force in 3D hydrogel microgrooves. Mater Today Bio 2024; 26:101074. [PMID: 38736613 PMCID: PMC11081801 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2024.101074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanical environment of vascular endothelial cells (ECs) encompasses a wide range of curvatures due to variations in blood vessel diameters. Integrins, key mediators of cell-matrix interactions, establish connections between the extracellular matrix and the actin cytoskeleton, influencing diverse cellular behaviors. In this study, we explored the impact of spatial confinement on human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs) cultured within three-dimensional hydrogel microgrooves of varying curvatures and the underlying role of integrins in mediating cellular responses. Employing maskless lithography, we successfully fabricated precise and wall curvatures-controlled hydrogel microgrooves, conferring spatial constraints on the cells. Our investigations revealed substantial alterations in HUVEC behavior within the hydrogel microgrooves with varying sidewall curvatures, marked by reduced cell size, enhanced orientation, and increased apoptosis. Interestingly, microgroove curvature emerged as a crucial factor influencing cell orientation and apoptosis, with rectangular microgrooves eliciting distinct changes in cell orientation, while ring-form microgrooves exhibited higher apoptosis rates. The side-wall effect in the 20 μm region near the microgroove wall had the greatest influence on cell orientation and apoptosis. HUVECs within the microgrooves exhibited elevated integrin expression, and inhibition of αV-integrin by cilengitide significantly curtailed cell apoptosis without affecting proliferation. Additionally, integrin-mediated cell traction force closely correlated with the spatial confinement effect. Cilengitide not only reduced integrin and focal adhesion expression but also attenuated cell traction force and cytoskeletal actin filament alignment. Overall, our findings elucidate the spatial confinement of ECs in hydrogel microgrooves and underscores the pivotal role of integrins, particularly αV-integrin, in mediating cell traction force and apoptosis within this microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenli Jiang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Xinghong Yao
- Department of Radiotherapy, Radiation Oncology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Jian Zhong
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Zhi Ouyang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Junyi Shen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Yan Qiu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Ye Zeng
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
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Li W, Su H, Ma Y, Ren H, Feng Z, Wang Y, Qiu Y, Wang H, Wang H, Chen Q, Zhu Z. Multicargo-loaded inverse opal gelatin hydrogel microparticles for promoting bacteria-infected wound healing. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 260:129557. [PMID: 38242411 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
Nowadays, many strategies have been developed to design biomaterials to accelerate bacteria-infected wound healing. Here, we presented a new type of multicargo-loaded inverse opal hydrogel microparticle (IOHM) for regulating oxidative stress, antibiosis, and angiogenesis of the bacteria-infected wound. The methacrylate acylated gelatin (GelMA)-based inverse opal hydrogel microparticles (IOHMs) were obtained by using the colloidal crystal microparticles as templates, and fullerol, silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were loaded in IOHMs. The developed multicargo-loaded IOHMs displayed good size distribution and biocompatibility, and when they were applied in cell culture, bacteria culture, and animal experiments, they exhibited excellent anti-oxidative stress properties, antibacterial properties, and angiogenesis. These characteristics of the developed multicargo-loaded IOHMs make them ideal for bacteria-infected wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhan Li
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Haiwen Su
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yanyu Ma
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Haoyu Ren
- The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Zhenhua Feng
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yong Qiu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Hengjin Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Huan Wang
- The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China.
| | - Quanchi Chen
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.
| | - Zezhang Zhu
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210008, China; Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.
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Shu J, Deng H, Zhang Y, Wu F, He J. Cancer cell response to extrinsic and intrinsic mechanical cue: opportunities for tumor apoptosis strategies. Regen Biomater 2024; 11:rbae016. [PMID: 38476678 PMCID: PMC10932484 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbae016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Increasing studies have revealed the importance of mechanical cues in tumor progression, invasiveness and drug resistance. During malignant transformation, changes manifest in either the mechanical properties of the tissue or the cellular ability to sense and respond to mechanical signals. The major focus of the review is the subtle correlation between mechanical cues and apoptosis in tumor cells from a mechanobiology perspective. To begin, we focus on the intracellular force, examining the mechanical properties of the cell interior, and outlining the role that the cytoskeleton and intracellular organelle-mediated intracellular forces play in tumor cell apoptosis. This article also elucidates the mechanisms by which extracellular forces guide tumor cell mechanosensing, ultimately triggering the activation of the mechanotransduction pathway and impacting tumor cell apoptosis. Finally, a comprehensive examination of the present status of the design and development of anti-cancer materials targeting mechanotransduction is presented, emphasizing the underlying design principles. Furthermore, the article underscores the need to address several unresolved inquiries to enhance our comprehension of cancer therapeutics that target mechanotransduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Shu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, PR China
| | - Huan Deng
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, PR China
| | - Yu Zhang
- College of Food and Biological Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, PR China
| | - Fang Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, PR China
| | - Jing He
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, PR China
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He T, Wang Y, Wang R, Yang H, Hu X, Pu Y, Yang B, Zhang J, Li J, Huang C, Jin R, Nie Y, Zhang X. Fibrous topology promoted pBMP2-activated matrix on titanium implants boost osseointegration. Regen Biomater 2023; 11:rbad111. [PMID: 38173764 PMCID: PMC10761207 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbad111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Titanium (Ti) implants have been extensively used after surgical operations. Its surface bioactivity is of importance to facilitate integration with surrounding bone tissue, and ultimately ensure stability and long-term functionality of the implant. The plasmid DNA-activated matrix (DAM) coating on the surface could benefit osseointegration but is still trapped by poor transfection for further application, especially on the bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in vivo practical conditions. Herein, we constructed a DAM on the surface of fibrous-grained titanium (FG Ti) composed of phase-transition lysozyme (P) as adhesive, cationic arginine-rich lipid (RLS) as the transfection agent and plasmid DNA (pDNA) for bone morphology protein 2 (BMP2) expression. The cationic lipid RLS improved up to 30-fold higher transfection than that of commercial reagents (Lipofectamine 2000 and polyethyleneimine) on MSC. And importantly, Ti surface topology not only promotes the DAM to achieve high transfection efficiency (∼75.7% positive cells) on MSC due to the favorable combination but also reserves its contact induction effect for osteoblasts. Upon further exploration, the fibrous topology on FG Ti could boost pDNA uptake for gene transfection, and cell migration in MSC through cytoskeleton remodeling and induce contact guidance for enhanced osteointegration. At the same time, the cationic RLS together with adhesive P were both antibacterial, showing up to 90% inhibition rate against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with reduced adherent microorganisms and disrupted bacteria. Finally, the FG Ti-P/pBMP2 implant achieved accelerated bone healing capacities through highly efficient gene delivery, aligned surface topological structure and increased antimicrobial properties in a rat femoral condylar defect model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting He
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yichun Wang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Ruohan Wang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Huan Yang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xueyi Hu
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yiyao Pu
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Binbin Yang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
- Department of the Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Jingyuan Zhang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Juan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China School of Stomatology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Chongxiang Huang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Rongrong Jin
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yu Nie
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xingdong Zhang
- National Engineering Research Centre for Biomaterials/College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
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Wistner SC, Rashad L, Slaughter G. Advances in tissue engineering and biofabrication for in vitro skin modeling. BIOPRINTING (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 35:e00306. [PMID: 38645432 PMCID: PMC11031264 DOI: 10.1016/j.bprint.2023.e00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
The global prevalence of skin disease and injury is continually increasing, yet conventional cell-based models used to study these conditions do not accurately reflect the complexity of human skin. The lack of inadequate in vitro modeling has resulted in reliance on animal-based models to test pharmaceuticals, biomedical devices, and industrial and environmental toxins to address clinical needs. These in vivo models are monetarily and morally expensive and are poor predictors of human tissue responses and clinical trial outcomes. The onset of three-dimensional (3D) culture techniques, such as cell-embedded and decellularized approaches, has offered accessible in vitro alternatives, using innovative scaffolds to improve cell-based models' structural and histological authenticity. However, these models lack adequate organizational control and complexity, resulting in variations between structures and the exclusion of physiologically relevant vascular and immunological features. Recently, biofabrication strategies, which combine biology, engineering, and manufacturing capabilities, have emerged as instrumental tools to recreate the heterogeneity of human skin precisely. Bioprinting uses computer-aided design (CAD) to yield robust and reproducible skin prototypes with unprecedented control over tissue design and assembly. As the interdisciplinary nature of biofabrication grows, we look to the promise of next-generation biofabrication technologies, such as organ-on-a-chip (OOAC) and 4D modeling, to simulate human tissue behaviors more reliably for research, pharmaceutical, and regenerative medicine purposes. This review aims to discuss the barriers to developing clinically relevant skin models, describe the evolution of skin-inspired in vitro structures, analyze the current approaches to biofabricating 3D human skin mimetics, and define the opportunities and challenges in biofabricating skin tissue for preclinical and clinical uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Wistner
- Center for Bioelectronics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, 23508, USA
| | - Layla Rashad
- Center for Bioelectronics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, 23508, USA
| | - Gymama Slaughter
- Center for Bioelectronics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, 23508, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, 23508, USA
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