Influence of HLA polymorphisms on clinical features of VEXAS syndrome: a potential epistatic mechanism

The role of 18FDG-PET imaging in VEXAS syndrome: a multicentric case series and a systematic review of the literature

VEXAS (vacuoles, E1 enzyme, X-linked, autoinflammatory, and somatic) syndrome is characterized by heterogeneous clinical manifestations. Due to the inflammatory nature of this condition, 18-FDG-PET (18-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography) might be used to diagnose and monitor the disease. However, no data are available about the most common findings of PET imaging in this disease. For this reason, we summarised all the available reports of patients with VEXAS who underwent at least one PET scan and described 8 additional patients' PET from our centres. Overall, we described 35 patients' PET findings. All patients were male, with a median age of 70 years. The most frequent hypermetabolic sites on PET scans were the bone marrow (77.1%), lymph nodes (35.3%), lungs (28.6%), spleen and large vessels (22.9%), and cartilage (20%). Six patients underwent a PET scan 2.7 ± 1.5 years before VEXAS diagnosis, showing nonspecific uptake in the bone marrow. Four patients had a follow-up PET scan, showing a decrease or a disappearance of the previously identified hypermetabolic areas. In conclusion, although no specific uptake site has been found for VEXAS syndrome, PET imaging could help detect inflammatory foci that are not clinically evident. In addition, high metabolic activity in bone marrow might precede the clinical onset of the disease, shedding light on the pathogenesis of VEXAS.

VEXAS syndrome (vacuoles, E1 enzyme, X-linked, autoinflammatory, somatic): clinical review in a rapidly emerging field

VEXAS syndrome is a recently described entity characterized by systemic inflammatory and hematologic manifestations. The disease was first characterized by Beck et al. in 2020 in a study characterizing 25 patients with undiagnosed adult-onset inflammatory syndromes. While the literature regarding VEXAS syndrome has grown exponentially since 2020, there is still much to be understood. This lack of information leads to challenges in both the diagnosis and treatment of patients with VEXAS syndrome. Patients will often have a variety of clinical symptoms that can lead to missed or delayed diagnoses. Additionally, awareness of VEXAS syndrome is still developing among clinicians. In this comprehensive review, we summarize the current literature regarding VEXAS syndrome, and explore clinical updates of this emerging disease state. Our aim of this review is to increase awareness regarding this new disease state and identify research areas to better understand future treatment approaches for patients with VEXAS syndrome.

Autoimmunity and Autoinflammation: Relapsing Polychondritis and VEXAS Syndrome Challenge

Relapsing polychondritis is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory condition characterized by recurrent episodes of inflammation at the level of cartilaginous structures and tissues rich in proteoglycans. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex and still incompletely elucidated. The data support the important role of a particular genetic predisposition, with HLA-DR4 being considered an allele that confers a major risk of disease occurrence. Environmental factors, mechanical, chemical or infectious, act as triggers in the development of clinical manifestations, causing the degradation of proteins and the release of cryptic cartilage antigens. Both humoral and cellular immunity play essential roles in the occurrence and perpetuation of autoimmunity and inflammation. Autoantibodies anti-type II, IX and XI collagens, anti-matrilin-1 and anti-COMPs (cartilage oligomeric matrix proteins) have been highlighted in increased titers, being correlated with disease activity and considered prognostic factors. Innate immunity cells, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, natural killer lymphocytes and eosinophils have been found in the perichondrium and cartilage, together with activated antigen-presenting cells, C3 deposits and immunoglobulins. Also, T cells play a decisive role in the pathogenesis of the disease, with relapsing polychondritis being considered a TH1-mediated condition. Thus, increased secretions of interferon γ, interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-2 have been highlighted. The "inflammatory storm" formed by a complex network of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines actively modulates the recruitment and infiltration of various cells, with cartilage being a source of antigens. Along with RP, VEXAS syndrome, another systemic autoimmune disease with genetic determinism, has an etiopathogenesis that is still incompletely known, and it involves the activation of the innate immune system through different pathways and the appearance of the cytokine storm. The clinical manifestations of VEXAS syndrome include an inflammatory phenotype often similar to that of RP, which raises diagnostic problems. The management of RP and VEXAS syndrome includes common immunosuppressive therapies whose main goal is to control systemic inflammatory manifestations. The objective of this paper is to detail the main etiopathogenetic mechanisms of a rare disease, summarizing the latest data and presenting the distinct features of these mechanisms.

Clonal hematopoiesis and autoimmunity

Clonal hematopoiesis (CH) has been associated with aging, occurring in about 10% of individuals aged >70 years, and immune dysfunction. Aged hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells exhibit pathological changes in immune function and activation of inflammatory pathways. CH clones commonly harbor a loss of function mutation in DNMT3A or TET2, which causes increased expression of inflammatory signaling genes, a proposed mechanism connected to CH and the development of age-related diseases. Additionally, inflammation may stress the hematopoietic compartment, driving the expansion of mutant clones. While the epidemiologic overlap between CH, hematologic malignancies, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases has been reported, the mechanisms linking these concepts are largely unknown and merit much further investigation. Here, we review studies highlighting the interplay between CH, inflamm-aging, the immune system, and the prevalence of CH in autoimmune diseases.

Autoimmune manifestations in VEXAS: Opportunities for integration and pitfalls to interpretation

VEXAS (Vacuoles, E1 enzyme, X-linked, Autoinflammatory, Somatic) is a novel entity manifesting with a multiplicity of clinical features. Somatic mutations of the UBA1 gene in hematopoietic stem cells constitute the genetic basis of VEXAS. As an X-linked disorder, most cases occur in men, classically developing symptoms during the fifth to sixth decade of life. Considering its multidisciplinary nature involving numerous branches of internal medicine, VEXAS has elicited a wide medical interest and several medical conditions have been associated with this disease. Even so, its recognition in everyday clinical practice is not necessarily straightforward. Close collaboration between different medical specialists is mandatory. Patients with VEXAS may manifest a range of features from manageable cytopenias to disabling and life-threatening autoimmune phenomena with limited responses to therapy, with the potential for progression to hematological malignancies. Diagnostic and treatment guidelines are exploratory and include a range of rheumatological and supportive care treatments. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is potentially curative, but its risks are significant and its position in the treatment algorithm is yet to be defined. Herein, we present the variegated manifestations of VEXAS, provide practice criteria for diagnostic testing of UBA1, and discuss potential treatment options, including allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, current evidence, and future directions.

From bone marrow failure syndromes to VEXAS: Disentangling clonal hematopoiesis, immune system, and molecular drivers

Clonal hematopoiesis (CH) is a result of the selective expansion of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) carrying somatic mutations originating from a primary HSC. The advent of modern genomic technologies has helped recognizing that CH is common in elderly healthy subjects as a result of the aging bone marrow (BM). CH in healthy subjects without abnormalities in blood counts is known as CH of indeterminate potential. CH is also seen in BM failure (BMF) disorders. Whether CH alarms for the risk to develop malignant evolution in BMF or creates an adaptation to selective pressure is a matter of controversy. As such, a continuum might exist from pre-malignant to malignant hematopoietic diseases. This review summarizes how somatic mutations and immune derangement in HSCs shape disease evolution and describes the complexity of disorders such as VEXAS as the prototypic tetrad of somatic mutations, morphologic features, inflammatory pathways and immune overshooting. In such a view, we interconnect the axis aging and immune-hematopoietic system, which all convey important clues for the risk to develop malignancies.

VEXAS syndrome: a new paradigm for adult-onset monogenic autoinflammatory diseases

VEXAS (Vacuoles, E1 enzyme, X-linked, Autoinflammatory, Somatic) syndrome is a recently described pathological entity. It is an acquired monogenic autoinflammatory disease caused by somatic mutations of the UBA1 gene in blood cells precursors; the gene encodes one of the two E1 enzyme isoforms that initiates ubiquitylation in cell's cytoplasm. VEXAS syndrome leads to systemic inflammation, with all organs and tissues potentially involved. The clinical picture may be extremely heterogenous, mimicking different other systemic rheumatologic entities coexisting with haematological disorders, especially myelodysplastic syndrome. This new disease represents a very intriguing clinical condition in several respects: it accounts for the paradigm of adult-onset monogenic autoinflammatory diseases determined by a genetic mosaicism resulting in the development of a challenging multiorgan inflammatory condition. Moreover, VEXAS syndrome is perhaps not an exceptionally rare condition and represents an example of a systemic genetic autoinflammatory disease drawing its origin in bone marrow disorders. VEXAS syndrome should be strongly considered in each adult patient with an unexplained systemic inflammatory condition, especially when recurrent fevers, neutrophilic dermatosis, relapsing polychondritis, ocular inflammation and other systemic inflammatory symptoms accompanying myelodysplastic syndrome or other haematological disorders. The syndrome deserves a multidisciplinary approach to reach the diagnosis and ensure the best management of a potentially very challenging condition. To quickly describe the clinical course, long-term outcomes, and the optimal management of this new syndrome it is essential to join forces internationally. To this end, the international AutoInflammatory Disease Alliance (AIDA) registry dedicated to VEXAS syndrome has been developed and is already active.