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Miler M, Zupančič N, Šebela S, Jarc S. Natural and anthropogenic impact on the microclimate and particulate matter in the UNESCO show cave. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:48313-48331. [PMID: 39028456 PMCID: PMC11297898 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34366-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Particulate matter concentrations (PM10, PM2.5, PM1) and microclimatic parameters (air temperature, CO2) were monitored in the Škocjan Caves (Slovenia). The effects of tourist visits on the PM concentrations and the cave's microclimate are immediate and direct, but these values normalise relatively quickly. The results showed seasonal, diurnal, and spatial differences in all parameters studied. Due to the higher number of visitors, their influence on the cave's microclimate and PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations is greater in summer than in winter. The measured PM1 levels depend on the ventilation in the cave, as air transport plays an important role in their introduction into the cave. PM consists of minerals of natural origin resulting from the re-suspension of cave sediments due to strong air currents generated by the opening of the doors to tourists and their walks. The second most common influence is the anthropogenic phases originating from maintenance work in the cave, electronic devices, cave lighting and emissions from outside the cave (aerosols from the polluted Reka River, industry, traffic, gypsum waste disposal). In order to upgrade the sustainable use of the UNESCO-listed Škocjan Caves for tourism, we propose regular monitoring of PM and a detailed characterization of individual PMs and their sources, in addition to monitoring of the cave's microclimate and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Miler
- Geological Survey of Slovenia, Dimičeva Ulica 14, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Zupančič
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Geology, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 12, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- ZRC SAZU, Ivan Rakovec Institute of Palaeontology, Novi Trg 2, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stanka Šebela
- ZRC SAZU, Karst Research Institute, Titov Trg 2, 6230, Postojna, Slovenia
| | - Simona Jarc
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Geology, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 12, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Rowberry MD, Martí X, Frontera C, Van De Wiel MJ, Briestenský M. Calculating flux to predict future cave radon concentrations. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2016; 157:16-26. [PMID: 26950394 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 02/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Cave radon concentration measurements reflect the outcome of a perpetual competition which pitches flux against ventilation and radioactive decay. The mass balance equations used to model changes in radon concentration through time routinely treat flux as a constant. This mathematical simplification is acceptable as a first order approximation despite the fact that it sidesteps an intrinsic geological problem: the majority of radon entering a cavity is exhaled as a result of advection along crustal discontinuities whose motions are inhomogeneous in both time and space. In this paper the dynamic nature of flux is investigated and the results are used to predict cave radon concentration for successive iterations. The first part of our numerical modelling procedure focuses on calculating cave air flow velocity while the second part isolates flux in a mass balance equation to simulate real time dependence among the variables. It is then possible to use this information to deliver an expression for computing cave radon concentration for successive iterations. The dynamic variables in the numerical model are represented by the outer temperature, the inner temperature, and the radon concentration while the static variables are represented by the radioactive decay constant and a range of parameters related to geometry of the cavity. Input data were recorded at Driny Cave in the Little Carpathians Mountains of western Slovakia. Here the cave passages have developed along splays of the NE-SW striking Smolenice Fault and a series of transverse faults striking NW-SE. Independent experimental observations of fault slip are provided by three permanently installed mechanical extensometers. Our numerical modelling has revealed four important flux anomalies between January 2010 and August 2011. Each of these flux anomalies was preceded by conspicuous fault slip anomalies. The mathematical procedure outlined in this paper will help to improve our understanding of radon migration along crustal discontinuities and its subsequent exhalation into the atmosphere. Furthermore, as it is possible to supply the model with continuous data, future research will focus on establishing a series of underground monitoring sites with the aim of generating the first real time global radon flux maps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt D Rowberry
- Institute of Rock Structure & Mechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, V Holešovičkách 41, 182 09, Prague 8, Czech Republic.
| | - Xavi Martí
- Institute of Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Cukrovarnická 10, 162 53, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Carlos Frontera
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, E-08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco J Van De Wiel
- Centre for Agroecology, Water, and Resilience (CAWR), Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, United Kingdom
| | - Miloš Briestenský
- Institute of Rock Structure & Mechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, V Holešovičkách 41, 182 09, Prague 8, Czech Republic
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Dumitru OA, Onac BP, Fornós JJ, Cosma C, Ginés A, Ginés J, Merino A. Radon survey in caves from Mallorca Island, Spain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 526:196-203. [PMID: 25931025 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
This study reports radon concentration in the most representative caves of Mallorca, identifying those in which the recommended action level is exceeded, thus posing health risks. Two show caves (Campanet and Artà) and three non-touristic caves (Font, Drac, Vallgornera) were investigated. Data were collected at several locations within each cave for three different periods, from March 2013 to March 2014. Except for Vallgornera, where only one monitoring period was possible, and Artà in which low values were recorded throughout the year, a clear seasonal variability, with higher values during the warm seasons and lower during winter time is prominent. Radon concentrations differed markedly from one cave to another, as well as within the same cave, ranging from below detection limit up to 3060 Bq·m(-3). The results of this study have significant practical implications, making it possible to provide some recommendation to cave administrators and other agencies involved in granting access to the investigated caves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana A Dumitru
- Department of Geology, Babeș-Bolyai University, Kogălniceanu 1, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., NES 107 Tampa, USA
| | - Bogdan P Onac
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., NES 107 Tampa, USA
| | - Joan J Fornós
- Departament de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Crta. Valldemossa km 7.5, 07122 Palma (Mallorca), Spain
| | - Constantin Cosma
- Environmental Radioactivity and Nuclear Dating Center, Babeș-Bolyai University, Fântânele 30, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Angel Ginés
- Departament de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Crta. Valldemossa km 7.5, 07122 Palma (Mallorca), Spain
| | - Joaquín Ginés
- Departament de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Crta. Valldemossa km 7.5, 07122 Palma (Mallorca), Spain
| | - Antoni Merino
- Grup Espeleològic de Llubí, Federació Balear d'Espeleologia, c/Uruguai s/n, Palma Arena, 07010 Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
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Grgić I, Iskra I, Podkrajšek B, Gerjevič VD. Measurements of aerosol particles in the Škocjan Caves, Slovenia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 21:1915-1923. [PMID: 24006157 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-013-2080-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
For the first time, continuous aerosol measurements were performed in the Škocjan Caves, one of the most important cave systems in the world, and listed by UNESCO as a natural and cultural world heritage site since 1986. Measurements of PM10 were performed during three different periods: (1) in December 2011, the average background concentration was found to be about 4 μg m(-3); (2) in June 2012, a higher concentration was measured (8 μg m(-3)); and (3) from 8 to 20 August 2012, the highest concentration of 15.3 μg m(-3) was measured. Based on the PM10 measurement results, and as compared to similar measurements outside the cave, it can be hypothesized that the increase in the cave's aerosol concentration during the summer was connected to both the higher number of visitors and the polluted atmospheric air entering the cave upon entering of the cave system. Additional measurement of nanoparticles with scanning mobility particle sizer spectrometer (size between 14.1 and 710.5 nm) confirmed these findings; during the summer period, a severe raise in the total aerosol concentration of 30-50 times was found when groups of visitors entered the cave. Our results on nanoparticles demonstrated that we were able to detect very small changes and variations in aerosol concentration inside the cave. To our knowledge, these are the first results on nanoaerosol measurements in a cave, and we believe that such measurements may lead to the implementation of better protection of delicate cave systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Grgić
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Ivan Iskra
- A.P.E Research, BioNanoLab, Area Science Park, Basovizza ss. 14, Km 163.5, 34149, Trieste, Italy
| | - Boštjan Podkrajšek
- Institute of Occupational Safety, Chengdujska cesta 25, 1260, Ljubljana-Polje, Slovenia
| | - Vanja Debevec Gerjevič
- Department for Research and Development, Škocjan Caves Regional Park, Škocjan 2, 6215, Divača, Slovenia
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