Taxonomist's Nightmare … Evolutionist's Delight : An Integrative Approach Resolves Species Limits in Jumping Bristletails Despite Widespread Hybridization and Parthenogenesis

Phylogenetics, Molecular Species Delimitation and Geometric Morphometrics of All Reddish-Brown Species in the Genus Neotriplax Lewis, 1887 (Coleoptera: Erotylidae: Tritomini)

To date, five species of reddish-brown Neotriplax have been described, but their highly similar body color and other phenotypic traits make accurate taxonomy challenging. To clarify species-level taxonomy and validate potential new species, the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) was used for phylogenetic analysis and the geometric morphometrics of elytron, pronotum, and hind wing were employed to distinguish all reddish-brown Neotriplax species. Phylogenetic results using maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses of COI sequences aligned well with the current taxonomy of the Neotriplax species group. Significant K2P divergences, with no overlap between intra- and interspecific genetic distances, were obtained in Neotriplax species. The automatic barcode gap discovery (ABGD), assemble species by automatic partitioning (ASAP), and generalized mixed Yule coalescent (GMYC) approaches concurred, dividing the similar species into eight molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). Geometric morphometric analysis using pronotum, elytron, hind wing shape and wing vein patterns also validated the classification of all eight species. By integrating these analytical approaches with morphological evidence, we successfully delineated the reddish-brown species of Neotriplax into eight species with three new species: N. qinghaiensis sp. nov., N. maoershanensis sp. nov., and N. guangxiensis sp. nov. Furthermore, we documented the first record of N. lewisii in China. This study underscores the utility of an integrative taxonomy approach in species delimitation within Neotriplax and serves as a reference for the taxonomic revision of other morphologically challenging beetles through integrative taxonomy.

Genetic diversity of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium rileyi based on de novo microsatellite markers

Epizootics of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium rileyi regulate lepidopteran populations in soybean, cotton, and peanut agroecosystems to the point that insecticide applications could be unnecessary. However, the contribution and how different strains operate during the epizootic are unknown. Several unanswered questions remain: 1. How many genotypes of M. rileyi are present during an epizootic? 2. Which genotype is the most common among them? 3. Are the genotypes involved in annual epizootics at the same location the same? Therefore, the development of molecular markers to accurately identify these genotypes is very important to answer these questions. SSR primers were designed by prospecting in silico to discriminate genotypes and infer the genetic diversity of M. rileyi isolates from the collection kept at Embrapa Soybean. We tested 13 SSR markers on 136 isolates to identify 43 clones and 12 different genetic clusters, with genetic diversity ranging from Hs = 0.15 (cluster I) to Hs = 0.41 (cluster IV) and an average diversity of 0.24. No clusters were categorically distinguished based on hosts or geographical origin using Bayesian clustering analysis. Nonetheless, some clusters comprised most of the isolates with a common geographic origin; for example, cluster VIII was mainly composed of isolates from Central-western Brazil, cluster II from Southern Brazil, and cluster XII from Quincy, Northern Florida, in the United States. Underrepresented regions (few isolates) from Pacific Island nations of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia (specifically from Java) were placed into clusters IX and X. Although the analyzed isolates displayed evidence of clonal structure, the genetic diversity indices suggest a potential for the species to adapt to different environmental conditions.

Molecular and cytogenetic analyses in Geranium macrorrhizum L. wild Italian plants

Geranium macrorrhizum L. is a herbaceous species native to southern Europe and was introduced in central Europe and North America. It is also widely distributed in Italy. In this study, molecular and cytogenetic analyses were carried out on 22 wild plants, collected in central and southern Italy, compared with five cultivated plants, with the main purpose to identify those living near the Marmore waterfalls in central Italy, recently described as the new species Geranium lucarinii. Four barcoding markers (rbcL, matK, trnH-psbA intergenic spacer and internal transcribed spacer region) were sequenced and their variability among the plants was evaluated. Chromosome numbers were determined and 45S rDNA was physically mapped by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Moreover, genomic affinity between wild and cultivated plants was evaluated by genomic in situ hybridization. The results of this study supported that all the plants belong to G. macrorrhizum, including the Marmore population. Barcoding analyses showed a close similarity among the wild plants, and a differentiation, although not significant, between the wild plants on one hand and the cultivated plants on the other. Integrated studies focusing on morphological, genetic and ecological characterization of a larger number of wild populations would allow us to know the extent of the variability within the species.

Evolutionary history of an Alpine Archaeognath (Machilis pallida): Insights from different variant

Reconstruction of species histories is a central aspect of evolutionary biology. Patterns of genetic variation within and among populations can be leveraged to elucidate evolutionary processes and demographic histories. However, interpreting genetic signatures and unraveling the contributing processes can be challenging, in particular for non-model organisms with complex reproductive modes and genome organization. One way forward is the combined consideration of patterns revealed by different molecular markers (nuclear vs. mitochondrial) and types of variants (common vs. rare) that differ in their age, mode, and rate of evolution. Here, we applied this approach to RNAseq data generated for Machilis pallida (Archaeognatha), an Alpine jumping bristletail considered parthenogenetic and triploid. We generated de novo transcriptome and mitochondrial assemblies to obtain high-density data to investigate patterns of mitochondrial and common and rare nuclear variation in 17 M. pallida individuals sampled from all known populations. We find that the different variant types capture distinct aspects of the evolutionary history and discuss the observed patterns in the context of parthenogenesis, polyploidy, and survival during glaciation. This study highlights the potential of different variant types to gain insights into evolutionary scenarios even from challenging but often available data and the suitability of M. pallida and the genus Machilis as a study system for the evolution of sexual strategies and polyploidization during environmental change. We also emphasize the need for further research which will be stimulated and facilitated by these newly generated resources and insights.

Phylogenomic inference and demographic model selection suggest peripatric separation of the cryptic steppe ant species Plagiolepis pyrenaica stat. rev

The ant Plagiolepis taurica Santschi, 1920 (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) is a typical species of the Eurasian steppes, a large grassland dominated biome that stretches continuously from Central Asia to Eastern Europe and is represented by disjunct outposts also in Central and Western Europe. The extent of this biome has been influenced by the Pleistocene climate, and steppes expanded recurrently during cold stages and contracted in warm stages. Consequently, stenotopic steppe species such as P. taurica repeatedly went through periods of demographic expansion and severe isolation. Here, we explore the impact of these dynamics on the genetic diversification within P. taurica. Delimitation of P. taurica from other Plagiolepis species has been unclear since its initial description, which raised questions on both its classification and its spatiotemporal diversification early on. We re-evaluate species limits and explore underlying mechanisms driving speciation by using an integrative approach based on genomic and morphometric data. We found large intraspecific divergence within P. taurica and resolved geographically coherent western and eastern genetic groups, which likewise differed morphologically. A morphometric survey of type material showed that Plagiolepis from the western group were more similar to P. barbara pyrenaica Emery, 1921 than to P. taurica; we thus lift the former from synonymy and establish it as separate species, P. pyrenaica stat. rev. Explicit evolutionary model testing based on genomic data supported a peripatric speciation for the species pair, probably as a consequence of steppe contraction and isolation during the mid-Pleistocene. We speculate that this scenario could be exemplary for many stenotopic steppe species, given the emphasized dynamics of Eurasian steppes.

Impact of invasive ant species on native fauna across similar habitats under global environmental changes

Biotic invasions can predominantly alter the dynamics, composition, functions, and structure of natural ecosystems. Social insects, particularly ants, are among the most damaging invasive alien species. Invasive ant species are among the supreme threats to ecosystems. There are about 23 species of invasive ants recorded worldwide, according to the ant invasive databases. The ecological impacts of invasive ants comprise predation, hybridization, and competition with native species that changes the ecosystem processes with the biodiversity loss and upsurge of pests. The effects of invasion on native fauna in the same habitats might be catastrophic for the native community through various ecological mechanisms, e.g., habitat disturbance, resource competition, limiting the foraging activity of native species, and various other indirect mechanisms of invasive species. Invasive species may have harmful impacts on habitats and devastating effects on natural flora and fauna, and stopping these new species from being introduced is the most effective way to deter future invasions and maintain biodiversity. This paper reviews the literature to evaluate the effects of invasive ant species on the native species, including vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants sharing the same habitats as the non-native species under global environmental changes. We also highlighted the various management strategies that could be adopted in minimizing the adverse effects of these invasive ant species on the natural ecosystem. To this end, strategies that could regulate the mode and rate of invasion by these alien ant species are the most effective ways to deter future invasions and maintain biodiversity.

Population structure, adaptation and divergence of the meadow spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius (Hemiptera, Aphrophoridae), revealed by genomic and morphological data

Understanding patterns of population differentiation and gene flow in insect vectors of plant diseases is crucial for the implementation of management programs of disease. We investigated morphological and genome-wide variation across the distribution range of the spittlebug Philaenus spumarius (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, Aphrophoridae), presently the most important vector of the plant pathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa Wells et al., 1987 in Europe. We found genome-wide divergence between P. spumarius and a very closely related species, P. tesselatus Melichar, 1899, at RAD sequencing markers. The two species may be identified by the morphology of male genitalia but are not differentiated at mitochondrial COI, making DNA barcoding with this gene ineffective. This highlights the importance of using integrative approaches in taxonomy. We detected admixture between P. tesselatus from Morocco and P. spumarius from the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting gene-flow between them. Within P. spumarius, we found a pattern of isolation-by-distance in European populations, likely acting alongside other factors restricting gene flow. Varying levels of co-occurrence of different lineages, showing heterogeneous levels of admixture, suggest other isolation mechanisms. The transatlantic populations of North America and Azores were genetically closer to the British population analyzed here, suggesting an origin from North-Western Europe, as already detected with mitochondrial DNA. Nevertheless, these may have been produced through different colonization events. We detected SNPs with signatures of positive selection associated with environmental variables, especially related to extremes and range variation in temperature and precipitation. The population genomics approach provided new insights into the patterns of divergence, gene flow and adaptation in these spittlebugs and led to several hypotheses that require further local investigation.

Performance comparison of two reduced-representation based genome-wide marker-discovery strategies in a multi-taxon phylogeographic framework

Multi-locus genetic data are pivotal in phylogenetics. Today, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) allows scientists to generate an unprecedented amount of such data from any organism. However, HTS is resource intense and may not be accessible to wide parts of the scientific community. In phylogeography, the use of HTS has concentrated on a few taxonomic groups, and the amount of data used to resolve a phylogeographic pattern often seems arbitrary. We explore the performance of two genetic marker sampling strategies and the effect of marker quantity in a comparative phylogeographic framework focusing on six species (arthropods and plants). The same analyses were applied to data inferred from amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting (AFLP), a cheap, non-HTS based technique that is able to straightforwardly produce several hundred markers, and from restriction site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq), a more expensive, HTS-based technique that produces thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms. We show that in four of six study species, AFLP leads to results comparable with those of RADseq. While we do not aim to contest the advantages of HTS techniques, we also show that AFLP is a robust technique to delimit evolutionary entities in both plants and animals. The demonstrated similarity of results from the two techniques also strengthens biological conclusions that were based on AFLP data in the past, an important finding given the wide utilization of AFLP over the last decades. We emphasize that whenever the delimitation of evolutionary entities is the central goal, as it is in many fields of biodiversity research, AFLP is still an adequate technique.

Relevance of ddRADseq method for species and population delimitation of closely related and widely distributed wolf spiders (Araneae, Lycosidae)

Although species delimitation is often controversial, emerging DNA-based and classical morphology-based methods are rarely compared using large-scale samplings, even less in the case of widely distributed species that have distant, allopatric populations. In the current study, we examined species boundaries within two wolf spider species of the genus Pardosa (Araneae, Lycosidae), P. riparia and P. palustris. Wolf spiders constitute an excellent model for testing the relevance of traditional vs. modern methods in species and population delimitation because several closely related species are distributed over cross-continental geographic ranges. Allopatric populations of the two Pardosa species were sampled across Europe to Far East Russia (latitudinal range > 150°) and several dozen individuals were studied using morphological characters (morphometry of three measures for both sexes, plus five in males only and two in females only), DNA barcoding (COI sequencing) and double-digest restriction site associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). The results obtained allow for changing the taxonomic status of two Far East Russian populations to subspecies and ddRADseq proved to be a powerful tool for taxonomic research despite scarce sampling and inherent subjectivity of species delimitation in allopatry. Overall, this study pleads for both multi-criteria and more population-based studies in taxonomy.

Integrative taxonomy reveals an even greater diversity within the speciose genus Phyllodistomum (Platyhelminthes:Trematoda:Gorgoderidae), parasitic in the urinary bladder of Middle American freshwater fishes, with descriptions of five new species

Phyllodistomum is one of the most species-rich genera of parasitic platyhelminths, with 120 species described worldwide; they infect the urinary bladder of marine and freshwater fishes. As the number of new species within the genus has increased, morphological conservatism, and the lack of reliable diagnostic traits make the separation of species a challenging task. The increase of genetic data for Phyllodistomum species has permitted the use of an integrative taxonomy approach as a framework for species discovery and delimitation. DNA sequences (28S rRNA and COI mtDNA) were obtained from individuals of Phyllodistomum sampled in 29 locations across Middle America, and used in combination with morphology, host association and geographic distribution to uncover five new congeneric species. Morphologically, the new species are relatively similar; there are no unique morphological traits to readily distinguish them. We first investigated species boundaries through phylogenetic analyses of the independent and concatenated datasets; analyses recognised five candidate species showing reciprocal monophyly and strong clade support, particularly for COI data. The interspecific 28S rRNA and COI sequence divergence among the new species from 0.4 to 18.4% and from 5.1 to 27% respectively. These results were further validated by a Bayesian species delimitation approach. The five new species are well supported by molecular data used in combination with other sources of information such as host association and geographical distribution and are described herein as Phyllodistomum romualdae sp. nov., P. virmantasi sp. nov., P. isabelae sp. nov., P. scotti sp. nov., and P. simonae sp. nov.

A paradigm shift in our view of species drives current trends in biological classification

Discontent about changes in species classifications has grown in recent years. Many of these changes are seen as arbitrary, stemming from unjustified conceptual and methodological grounds, or leading to species that are less distinct than those recognised in the past. We argue that current trends in species classification are the result of a paradigm shift toward which systematics and population genetics have converged and that regards species as the phylogenetic lineages that form the branches of the Tree of Life. Species delimitation now consists of determining which populations belong to which individual phylogenetic lineage. This requires inferences on the process of lineage splitting and divergence, a process to which we have only partial access through incidental evidence and assumptions that are themselves subject to refutation. This approach is not free of problems, as horizontal gene transfer, introgression, hybridisation, incorrect assumptions, sampling and methodological biases can mislead inferences of phylogenetic lineages. Increasing precision is demanded through the identification of both sister relationships and processes blurring or mimicking phylogeny, which has triggered, on the one hand, the development of methods that explicitly address such processes and, on the other hand, an increase in geographical and character data sampling necessary to infer/test such processes. Although our resolving power has increased, our knowledge of sister relationships - what we designate as species resolution - remains poor for many taxa and areas, which biases species limits and perceptions about how divergent species are or ought to be. We attribute to this conceptual shift the demise of trinominal nomenclature we are witnessing with the rise of subspecies to species or their rejection altogether; subspecies are raised to species if they are found to correspond to phylogenetic lineages, while they are rejected as fabricated taxa if they reflect arbitrary partitions of continuous or non-hereditary variation. Conservation strategies, if based on taxa, should emphasise species and reduce the use of subspecies to avoid preserving arbitrary partitions of continuous variation; local variation is best preserved by focusing on biological processes generating ecosystem resilience and diversity rather than by formally naming diagnosable units of any kind. Since many binomials still designate complexes of species rather than individual species, many species have been discovered but not named, geographical sampling is sparse, gene lineages have been mistaken for species, plenty of species limits remain untested, and many groups and areas lack adequate species resolution, we cannot avoid frequent changes to classifications as we address these problems. Changes will not only affect neglected taxa or areas, but also popular ones and regions where taxonomic research remained dormant for decades and old classifications were taken for granted.

Just the once will not hurt: DNA suggests species lumping over two oceans in deep-sea snails (Cryptogemma)

The practice of species delimitation using molecular data commonly leads to the revealing of species complexes and an increase in the number of delimited species. In a few instances, however, DNA-based taxonomy has led to lumping together of previously described species. Here, we delimit species in the genus Cryptogemma (Gastropoda: Conoidea: Turridae), a group of deep-sea snails with a wide geographical distribution, primarily by using the mitochondrial COI gene. Three approaches of species delimitation (ABGD, mPTP and GMYC) were applied to define species partitions. All approaches resulted in eight species. According to previous taxonomic studies and shell morphology, 23 available names potentially apply to the eight Cryptogemma species that were recognized herein. Shell morphometrics, radular characters and geographical and bathymetric distributions were used to link type specimens to these delimited species. In all, 23 of these available names are here attributed to seven species, resulting in 16 synonymizations, and one species is described as new: Cryptogemma powelli sp. nov. We discuss the possible reasons underlying the apparent overdescription of species within Cryptogemma, which is shown here to constitute a rare case of DNA-based species lumping in the hyper-diversified superfamily Conoidea.

An Empirical Analysis Rejects the Hybrid Speciation Hypothesis of a Crucial Kiwifruit Species, Despite Genomic Evidence of Frequent Interspecific Gene Flow in the Genus

Hybrid speciation is an important way to generate species diversity. In general, however, interspecific hybridization is easily confused with the formation of hybrid species. Using the genomic resequencing data of the kiwifruit genus (Actinidia), at least ten species were documented recently as homoploid hybrid species, and thus a two-layer mode of species diversification has been proposed. As a crucial piece of evidence, Actinidia fulvicoma was identified as a hybrid derivative of Actinidia eriantha × Actinidia cylindrica, representing a rare case of hybrid species in kiwifruit that won the competition of ecological niches with one of its putative parental species, A. cylindrica. However, the hypothesized hybrid origin of A. fulvicoma is inconsistent with our specimen observations. Here, we present multiple lines of evidence to reject the hybrid speciation hypothesis for this species, despite genomic evidence for frequent interspecific gene flow. We collected the samples of A. fulvicoma in type locality and neighboring regions to contrast them with type specimen, and sequenced nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS, chloroplast trnL-trnF and mitochondrial nad2-i3, as well as four single-copy nuclear genes explored from kiwifruit genomes, to infer phylogenetic relationships among A. fulvicoma, its putative parental species, and their relatives. Our data definitely reveal that A. fulvicoma occupies an independent backbone lineage and it is not a hybrid. This study suggests that correct evolutionary applications on extensive surveys of the putative hybrid and its possible parents with strict criteria are necessary in the documentation of hybrid speciation to advance our understanding of the genomic basis of hybrid species.

Molecular phylogeny and species delimitation of the genus Dicerapanorpa (Mecoptera: Panorpidae)

Given that species is the fundamental unit in systematic biology, rigorous species delimitation is crucial for taxonomic studies, yet routine species delimitation remains an ongoing challenge in the taxonomic practice of insects. The two-horned scorpionfly Dicerapanorpa is a small genus in Panorpidae (Mecoptera) endemic to the Qinling-Bashan and Hengduan mountains, a biodiversity hotspot. However, species of Dicerapanorpa are difficult to delineate owing to marked intraspecific variation and interspecific similarity. Here, we investigate the diversity and species boundaries of Dicerapanorpa using an integrative approach based on DNA barcoding, morphological, geometric morphometric and molecular phylogenetic analyses. This integrative analyses confirmed the 13 described species of Dicerapanorpa and revealed three new species: Dicerapanorpa lativalva sp. nov., Dicerapanorpa hualongshana sp. nov. and Dicerapanorpa minshana sp. nov. Most molecular operational taxonomic units are in congruence with morphological clusters. Possible reasons for several discordances in Dicerapanorpa are tentatively discussed.

Quantifying morphological variation in the Castilleja pilosa species complex (Orobanchaceae)

Robustly delimited species are of paramount importance, the identification of which relies on our ability to discern boundaries between one species and the next. This is not difficult to do when species are very distinct from one another. However, in recently evolved lineages where putative species may have relatively few diagnostic features (e.g., species complexes composed of very similar species, the boundaries between which are often unclear), defining species boundaries can be more challenging. Hence, the field of species delimitation has widely advocated the use of multiple lines of evidence to delimit species, particularly in species complexes. Excessive taxonomic confusion, often the result of species descriptions that shift through time (e.g., during revisionary work and regional treatments), can further complicate the search for diagnostic features in species complexes. Here, as a first step in robustly delimiting species boundaries, we quantify and describe morphological variation in the Castilleja pilosa species complex. We first infer the morphospace of the species complex and use fuzzy-clustering techniques to explore the morphological variation in the system. Next, we hypothesize the position of type specimens within that morphospace. In so doing, we aim to visualize the impact that regional treatments have had on the conceptualization of taxa through time. We find that there is limited morphological variation among members of this complex, and we determine that the morphological concept of these species have shifted through time and are no longer accurately represented by species descriptions.

Archaeognatha of Canada

Current knowledge of the Canadian bristletail (Archaeognatha) fauna is summarized and compared with Tomlin's 1979 chapter on the group in Canada and Its Insect Fauna. Since that time the number of species known from Canada has increased from three to eight. While much work remains to be done to document an estimated eight additional species from Canada, this can be accomplished using an integrated approach.

Salmo macrostigma (Teleostei, Salmonidae): Nothing more than a brown trout (S. trutta) lineage?

We examined specimens of the macrostigma trout Salmo macrostigma, which refers to big black spots on the flanks, to assess whether it is an example of taxonomic inflation within the brown trout Salmo trutta complex. Using new specimens, publicly available data and a mitogenomic protocol to amplify the control and cytochrome b regions of the mitochondrial genome from degraded museum samples, including one syntype specimen, the present study shows that the macrostigma trout is not a valid species. Our results suggest the occurrence of a distinct evolutionary lineage of S. trutta in North Africa and Sicily. The name of the North African lineage is proposed for this lineage, which was found to be sister to the Atlantic lineage of brown trout, S. trutta.

Population genomics and geographical parthenogenesis in Japanese harvestmen (Opiliones, Sclerosomatidae, Leiobunum)

Naturally occurring population variation in reproductive mode presents an opportunity for researchers to test hypotheses regarding the evolution of sex. Asexual reproduction frequently assumes a geographical pattern, in which parthenogenesis-dominated populations are more broadly dispersed than their sexual conspecifics. We evaluate the geographical distribution of genomic signatures associated with parthenogenesis using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data from two Japanese harvestman sister taxa, Leiobunum manubriatum and Leiobunum globosum. Asexual reproduction is putatively facultative in these species, and female-biased localities are common in habitat margins. Past karyotypic and current cytometric work indicates L. globosum is entirely tetraploid, while L. manubriatum may be either diploid or tetraploid. We estimated species phylogeny, genetic differentiation, diversity, and mitonuclear discordance in females collected across the species range in order to identify range expansion toward marginal habitat, potential for hybrid origin, and persistence of asexual lineages. Our results point to northward expansion of a tetraploid ancestor of L. manubriatum and L. globosum, coupled with support for greater male gene flow in southern L. manubriatum localities. Specimens from localities in the Tohoku and Hokkaido regions were indistinct, particularly those of L. globosum, potentially due to little mitochondrial differentiation or haplotypic variation. Although L. manubriatum overlaps with L. globosum across its entire range, L. globosum was reconstructed as monophyletic with strong support using mtDNA, and marginal support with nuclear loci. Ultimately, we find evidence for continued sexual reproduction in both species and describe opportunities to clarify the rate and mechanism of parthenogenesis.

Ovipositor setation in oldest insects (Insecta: Archaeognatha) revealed by SEM and He-ion microscopy

Archaeognatha represent the oldest living lineage of true insects (=Ectognatha), which are remarkable, among others, for plesiomorphic genital morphology and complicated mating behaviour. I used scanning electron microscopy and He-ion microscopy to examine the ovipositor morphology of seven species, in order to describe the cuticle microsculpture. The species studied are characterised by different types of the ovipositor setation pattern, which are considered an important taxonomic feature for Archaeognatha. The common and well discernible elements of ovipositor setation in Archaeognatha are: (1) non-articulated terminal seta, (2) grooved type I basiconic sensillum with apical pore, (3) multiporous type II basiconic sensillum, (4) articulated setae of different length. Coeloconica-like sensilla and campaniform sensilla demonstrate a variety of transient morphology. Results of this study provide morphological evidence of presence of olfactory receptors on the ovipositor in Archaeognatha. The possible functions of the ovipositor setation in Archaeognatha are discussed.

Do genome size differences within Brachionus asplanchnoidis (Rotifera, Monogononta) cause reproductive barriers among geographic populations?

Genome size in the rotifer Brachionus asplanchnoidis, which belongs to the B. plicatilis species complex, is greatly enlarged and extremely variable (205-407 Mbp). Such variation raises the question whether large genome size differences among individuals might cause reproductive barriers, which could trigger speciation within this group by restricting gene flow across populations. To test this hypothesis, we used B. asplanchnoidis clones from three geographic populations and conducted assays to quantify reproductive isolation among clones differing in genome size, and we examined the population structure of all three populations using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). AFLPs indicated that these populations were genetically separated, but we also found hints of natural gene flow. Clones from different populations with genome size differences of up to 1.7-fold could interbred successfully in the laboratory and give rise to viable, fertile 'hybrid' offspring. Genome sizes of these 'hybrids' were intermediate between those of their parents, and fitness in terms of male production, population growth, and egg development time was not negatively affected. Thus, we found no evidence for reproductive isolation or nascent speciation within B. asplanchnoidis. Instead, our results suggest that gene flow within this species can occur despite a remarkably large range of genome sizes.

Species Delimitation and Description of Mesocriconema nebraskense n. sp. (Nematoda: Criconematidae), a Morphologically Cryptic, Parthenogenetic Species from North American Grasslands

Nematode surveys of North American grasslands conducted from 2010 to 2015 frequently recovered a species of criconematid nematode morphologically resembling Mesocriconema curvatum. These specimens were recovered from remnant native prairies in the central tallgrass ecoregion of North America, and not from surrounding agroecosystems. Historical records indicate that M. curvatum is a cosmopolitan species feeding on a wide range of agronomic and native plants. DNA barcoding indicates North American grasslands contain at least 10 phylogenetically distinct lineages of Mesocriconema that resemble, but are not, M. curvatum. Analysis of the two most common lineages reveals two distinctly different population structures. The variation in population structure suggests unique evolutionary histories associated with their diversification. These two major lineages share a sympatric distribution and their slight morphological differences contrast with a high level of genetic separation. Based on their genetic divergence, fixed diagnostic nucleotides, population structure, species delimitation metrics, and a sympatric distribution, we believe that one of these distinct lineages warrants formal nomenclatural recognition. Herein, we provide formal recognition for Mesocriconema nebraskense n. sp. and discuss its relationship to other Mesocriconema lineages discovered in native North American grasslands.

Two in one: cryptic species discovered in biological control agent populations using molecular data and crossbreeding experiments

There are many examples of cryptic species that have been identified through DNA‐barcoding or other genetic techniques. There are, however, very few confirmations of cryptic species being reproductively isolated. This study presents one of the few cases of cryptic species that has been confirmed to be reproductively isolated and therefore true species according to the biological species concept. The cryptic species are of special interest because they were discovered within biological control agent populations. Two geographically isolated populations of Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) [Hemiptera: Miridae], a biological control agent for the invasive aquatic macrophyte, water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms [Pontederiaceae], in South Africa, were sampled from the native range of the species in South America. Morphological characteristics indicated that both populations were the same species according to the current taxonomy, but subsequent DNA analysis and breeding experiments revealed that the two populations are reproductively isolated. Crossbreeding experiments resulted in very few hybrid offspring when individuals were forced to interbreed with individuals of the other population, and no hybrid offspring were recorded when a choice of mate from either population was offered. The data indicate that the two populations are cryptic species that are reproductively incompatible. Subtle but reliable diagnostic characteristics were then identified to distinguish between the two species which would have been considered intraspecific variation without the data from the genetics and interbreeding experiments. These findings suggest that all consignments of biological control agents from allopatric populations should be screened for cryptic species using genetic techniques and that the importation of multiple consignments of the same species for biological control should be conducted with caution.