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Yang C, Zheng H, Amin A, Faheem MS, Duan A, Li L, Xiao P, Li M, Shang J. Follicular Atresia in Buffalo: Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript (CART) and the Underlying Mechanisms. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:2138. [PMID: 39123664 PMCID: PMC11311020 DOI: 10.3390/ani14152138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Atresia is a process in ovarian follicles that is regulated by hormone-induced apoptosis. During atresia, granulosa cell (GC) apoptosis is a key mechanism orchestrated through diverse signaling pathways. Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) signaling within ovarian GCs has been demonstrated to play a key role in the regulation of follicular atresia in cattle, pigs, and sheep. The present work aimed to investigate the potential local regulatory role of CART in GC apoptosis-induced follicular atresia in buffalo, focusing on the modulation of the AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin signaling pathways, which are the intracellular signaling pathways involved in cell viability. Our findings revealed increased expression of CARTPT and BAX and decreased levels of AKT, β-catenin, and CYP19A1 genes in atretic follicles compared to healthy follicles. Subsequently, CART treatment in the presence of FSH inhibited the FSH-induced increase in GC viability by reducing estradiol production and increasing apoptosis. This change was accompanied by an increase in the gene expression levels of both CARTPT and BAX. At the protein level, treatment with CART in the presence of FSH negatively affected the activity of AKT, β-catenin, and LEF1, while the activity of GSK3β was enhanced. In conclusion, our study shows how CART negatively influences buffalo GC viability, underlying the modulation of the AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin pathway and promoting apoptosis-a key factor in follicular atresia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Yang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Haiying Zheng
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Ahmed Amin
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt;
| | - Marwa S. Faheem
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt;
| | - Anqin Duan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Lingyu Li
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
| | - Peng Xiao
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Mengqi Li
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Jianghua Shang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
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Ashry M, Folger JK, Rajput SK, Baroni J, Smith GW. FSH stimulated bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis involves both canonical and noncanonical WNT signaling. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2022; 78:106678. [PMID: 34607220 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2021.106678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gonadotrophins play key roles in follicular development; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) regulation of aromatase and subsequent estradiol (E2) production relies on β-catenin, a key effector of WNT signaling. We previously demonstrated that treatment with the canonical WNT inhibitor, IWR-1, reduced FSH induced bovine granulosa cell E2 production in vitro. Here we demonstrated that intrafollicular injection in vivo with IWR-1 alters steroidogenesis and triggers a significant decrease in estrogen to progesterone ratio in the IWR-1 treated follicles compared to diluent injected control follicles. We next examined markers of canonical and noncanonical WNT signaling in dominant and subordinate follicles collected at different stages of follicular development and showed that protein for both CTNNB1 (canonical pathway) and phosphorylated (p)-LEF1 (noncanonical pathway) was significantly elevated in dominant compared to subordinate follicles at the early dominance stage of development. Therefore, we hypothesized that canonical and/or noncanonical WNT ligands modulate FSH stimulated E2 production. Hence, we examined the effects of specific WNT ligands on FSH stimulated E2 production in the absence of endogenous WNT production in vitro. Universal WNT signaling inhibitor, LGK-974 was able to inhibit FSH stimulation of E2 and reduce the abundance of proteins linked to canonical and noncanonical WNT pathway activation. Supplementation with the canonical ligand WNT2b did not affect the inhibitory effects of LGK-974 on FSH stimulated E2 production but rescued the LGK-974 mediated inhibition of CTNNB1 (canonical pathway) but not p-LEF1, p-JNK or p-P38 abundance (noncanonical pathway) abundance. In contrast, WNT5a treatment rescued FSH stimulated estradiol production and indices of activation of both the canonical (CTNNB1) and noncanonical (p-LEF1, p-JNK and p-P38) WNT signaling pathways in LGK-974 treated granulosa cells. Taken together, these results suggest that both canonical and noncanonical WNT pathways activation is linked to FSH stimulation of E2 production by bovine granulosa cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ashry
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Developmental Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Theriogenology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
| | - J K Folger
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - S K Rajput
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - J Baroni
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - G W Smith
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Department of Animal Science, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Chen CY, Chen CR, Chen CN, Wang PS, Mündel T, Liao YH, Tsai SC. Amphetamine-Decreased Progesterone and Estradiol Release in Rat Granulosa Cells: The Regulatory Role of cAMP- and Ca 2+-Mediated Signaling Pathways. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050493. [PMID: 33947083 PMCID: PMC8145484 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the amphetamine effects on progesterone and estradiol production in rat granulosa cells and the underlying cellular regulatory mechanisms. Freshly dispersed rat granulosa cells were cultured with various test drugs in the presence of amphetamine, and the estradiol/progesterone production and the cytosolic cAMP level were measured. Additionally, the cytosolic-free Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i) were measured to examine the role of Ca2+ influx in the presence of amphetamine. Amphetamine in vitro inhibited both basal and porcine follicle-stimulating hormone-stimulated estradiol/progesterone release, and amphetamine significantly decreased steroidogenic enzyme activities. Adding 8-Bromo-cAMP did not recover the inhibitory effects of amphetamine on progesterone and estradiol release. H89 significantly decreased progesterone and estradiol basal release but failed to enhance a further amphetamine inhibitory effect. Amphetamine was capable of further suppressing the release of estradiol release under the presence of nifedipine. Pretreatment with the amphetamine for 2 h decreased the basal [Ca2+]i and prostaglandin F2α-stimulated increase of [Ca2+]i. Amphetamine inhibits progesterone and estradiol secretion in rat granulosa cells through a mechanism involving decreased PKA-downstream steroidogenic enzyme activity and L-type Ca2+ channels. Our current findings show that it is necessary to study the possibility of amphetamine perturbing reproduction in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Yu Chen
- Department of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Taipei, Taipei City 111, Taiwan;
| | - Chien-Rung Chen
- Department of Nursing, Cardinal Tien Junior College of Healthcare and Management, New Taipei City 231, Taiwan;
| | - Chiao-Nan Chen
- Department of Physical Therapy and Assistive Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan;
| | - Paulus S. Wang
- Department of Physiology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan;
- Medical Center of Aging Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung City 404, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Health Science, Asia University, Taichung City 413, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City 112, Taiwan
| | - Toby Mündel
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Yi-Hung Liao
- Department of Exercise and Health Science, National Taipei University of Nursing and Health Sciences, Taipei City 112, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.L.); (S.-C.T.)
| | - Shiow-Chwen Tsai
- Institute of Sports Sciences, University of Taipei, Taipei City 112, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.L.); (S.-C.T.)
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Li P, Meng J, Jing J, Hao Q, Zhu Z, Yao J, Lyu L. Study on the relationship between expression patterns of cocaine-and amphetamine regulated transcript and hormones secretion in porcine ovarian follicles. Biol Res 2018; 51:6. [PMID: 29482665 PMCID: PMC6389156 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-018-0154-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cocaine-and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) is an endogenous neuropeptide, which is widespread in animals, plays a key role in regulation of follicular atresia in cattle and sheep. Among animal ovaries, CART mRNA was firstly found in the cattle ovaries. CART was localized in the antral follicles oocytes, granulosa and cumulus cells by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Further research found that secretion of E2 was inhibited in granulosa cells with a certain dose of CART, the effect depends on the stage of cell differentiation, suggesting that CART could play a crucial role in regulating follicle atresia. The objective of this study was to characterize the CART expression model and hormones secretion in vivo and vitro in pig follicle granulosa cells, preliminarily studied whether CART have an effect on granulosa cells proliferation and hormones secretion in multiparous animals such as pigs. Methods The expression levels of CART mRNA in granulosa cells of different follicles were analyzed using qRT-PCR technology. Immunohistochemistry technology was used to localize CART peptide. Granulosa cells were cultured in medium supplemented with different concentrations of CART and FSH for 168 h using Long-term culture system, and observed using a microscope. The concentration of Estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P) in follicular fluids of different test groups were detected by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results Results showed that expression level of CART mRNA was highest in medium follicles, and significantly higher than that in large and small follicles (P < 0.05). Immunohistochemical results showed that CART were expressed both in granulosa cells and theca cells of large follicles, while CART were detected only in theca cells of medium and small follicles. After the granulosa cells were cultured for 168 h, and found that concentrations of E2 increase with concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) increase when the CART concentration was 0 μM. And the concentration of FSH reached 25 ng/mL, the concentration of E2 is greatest. It shows that the production of E2 needs induction of FSH in granulosa cells of pig ovarian follicles. With the increasing of CART concentrations (0.01, 0.1, 1 μM), E2 concentration has a declining trend, when the FSH concentrations were 25 and 50 ng/mL in the medium, respectively. Conclusions These results suggested that CART plays a role to inhibit granulosa cells proliferation and E2 production, which induced by FSH in porcine ovarian follicular granulosa cells in vitro, but the inhibition effect is not significant. So we hypothesis CART maybe not a main local negative regulatory factor during porcine follicular development, which is different from the single fetal animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Li
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Jinzhu Meng
- Wujiang College, Tongren University, Tongren, 554300, Guizhou, China
| | - Jiongjie Jing
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Qingling Hao
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Zhiwei Zhu
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Jianbo Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China.,Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Lihua Lyu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China.
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Huang Y, Yao XL, Meng JZ, Liu Y, Jiang XL, Chen JW, Li PF, Ren YS, Liu WZ, Yao JB, Folger JK, Smith GW, Lv LH. Intrafollicular expression and potential regulatory role of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the ovine ovary. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2016; 54:30-6. [PMID: 26490113 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Follicular growth is regulated by a complex interaction of pituitary gonadotropins with local regulatory molecules. Previous studies demonstrated an important role for cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) in regulation of granulosa cell estradiol production associated with dominant follicle selection in cattle. However, intraovarian expression and actions of CART in other species, including sheep, are not known. The objective of this study was to investigate the expression of CART in sheep follicles and determine the effects of CART on indices of ovine granulosa cell function linked to follicular development. Results demonstrated the expression of CART messenger RNA and prominent intraovarian localization of CART peptide in granulosa cells of sheep follicles. Granulosa cell CART messenger RNA was lower, but follicular fluid estradiol concentrations were higher in large (>5 mm) follicles vs smaller 3- to 5-mm follicles harvested from sheep ovaries of abattoir origin. CART treatment inhibited follicle stimulating hormone-induced estradiol production by cultured ovine granulosal cells and also blocked the follicle stimulating hormone-induced increase in granulosa cell numbers. Results demonstrate expression of CART in sheep follicular tissues and suggest potential biological actions of CART, which are inhibitory to ovine follicular growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - X L Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - J Z Meng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - Y Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - X L Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - J W Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - P F Li
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - Y S Ren
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - W Z Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China
| | - J B Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China; Department of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - J K Folger
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - G W Smith
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China; Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - L H Lv
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, China.
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Gupta PSP, Folger JK, Rajput SK, Lv L, Yao J, Ireland JJ, Smith GW. Regulation and regulatory role of WNT signaling in potentiating FSH action during bovine dominant follicle selection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100201. [PMID: 24936794 PMCID: PMC4061082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Follicular development occurs in wave like patterns in monotocous species such as cattle and humans and is regulated by a complex interaction of gonadotropins with local intrafollicular regulatory molecules. To further elucidate potential mechanisms controlling dominant follicle selection, granulosa cell RNA harvested from F1 (largest) and F2 (second largest) follicles isolated at predeviation (PD) and onset of diameter deviation (OD) stages of the first follicular wave was subjected to preliminary RNA transcriptome analysis. Expression of numerous WNT system components was observed. Hence experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that WNT signaling modulates FSH action on granulosa cells during follicular waves. Abundance of mRNA for WNT pathway members was evaluated in granulosa cells harvested from follicles at emergence (EM), PD, OD and early dominance (ED) stages of the first follicular wave. In F1 follicles, abundance of CTNNB1 and DVL1 mRNAs was higher and AXIN2 mRNA was lower at ED versus EM stages and DVL1 and FZD6 mRNAs were higher and AXIN2 mRNA was lower in F1 versus F2 follicle at the ED stage. Bovine granulosa cells were treated in vitro with increasing doses of the WNT inhibitor IWR-1+/- maximal stimulatory dose of FSH. IWR-1 treatment blocked the FSH-induced increase in granulosa cell numbers and reduced the FSH-induced increase in estradiol. Granulosa cells were also cultured in the presence or absence of FSH +/- IWR-1 and hormonal regulation of mRNA for WNT pathway members and known FSH targets determined. FSH treatment increased CYP19A1, CCND2, CTNNB1, AXIN2 and FZD6 mRNAs and the stimulatory effect on CYP19A1 mRNA was reduced by IWR-1. In contrast, FSH reduced CARTPT mRNA and IWR-1 partially reversed the inhibitory effect of FSH. Results support temporal and hormonal regulation and a potential role for WNT signaling in potentiating FSH action during dominant follicle selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. S. P. Gupta
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Joseph K. Folger
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Sandeep K. Rajput
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Lihua Lv
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Jianbo Yao
- Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Genomics, Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
| | - James J. Ireland
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - George W. Smith
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
- * E-mail:
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