Postoperative radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate: impact on both local control and distant disease-free survival

Adjuvant Chemotherapy Plus Radiotherapy versus Chemotherapy Alone for Locally Advanced Bladder Cancer after Radical Cystectomy

BACKGROUND

Survival with locally advanced bladder cancer (LABC) following radical cystectomy (RC) remains poor. Although adjuvant chemotherapy (AC) is standard of care, one small, randomized trial has suggested a potential survival benefit when combined with post-operative radiotherapy (PORT).

OBJECTIVE

We examined the association of AC + PORT with overall survival (OS) in patients with LABC after RC.

METHODS

Using a prior phase 2 trial to inform design, we conducted observational analyses to emulate a hypothetical target trial of patients aged 18-79 years with pT3-4 Nany M0 or pTany N1-3 M0 urothelial bladder carcinoma following RC who were treated with AC (multiagent chemotherapy within 3 months of RC) with or without PORT (≥45 Gy to the pelvis) from 2006-2015 in the NCDB. Patients who received preoperative chemotherapy or radiotherapy were excluded. The associations of treatment with OS were evaluated using multivariable Cox regression.

RESULTS

1,684 patients were included, with 66 receiving AC + PORT and 1,618 AC alone. Compared to patients treated with AC alone, those treated with AC + PORT were more likely to have pT4 disease (52% vs 26%; p < 0.01), positive surgical margins (44% vs 17%; p < 0.01), and be treated at a non-academic facility (75% vs 53%; p < 0.01). Crude 5-year OS was 19% for AC + PORT versus 36% for AC alone (p = 0.01). Adjusted 5-year OS was 33% for AC + PORT versus 36% for AC alone (p = 0.49). After adjusting for baseline characteristics including pathologic features, AC + PORT was not associated with improved OS compared to AC alone (HR 1.11; 95% CI 0.82-1.51).

CONCLUSIONS

Although infrequently utilized, the addition of radiotherapy to AC is not associated with improved OS in LABC. These results highlight the need for prospective trials to better define the potential benefits from PORT with regard to symptomatic progression and oncologic outcomes.

The prognosis benefits of adjuvant versus salvage radiotherapy for patients after radical prostatectomy with adverse pathological features: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

The appropriate timing of radiotherapy (RT) for patients after radical prostatectomy (RP) with adverse pathological features (APFs) remains controversial. This systematic review was conducted to compare the efficacy of adjuvant radiotherapy (ART) and salvage radiotherapy (SRT).

Methods

PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library electronic databases were searched to retrieve the required. The hazard ratio (HR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) of overall survival (OS), biochemical recurrence-free survival (BRFS) and distant metastases-free survival (DMFS) were extracted. The survival benefits of ART with SRT (including early salvage radiotherapy (ESRT)) were analyzed. The process of the meta-analysis was performed with RevMan version 5.3.

Results

A total of fifteen retrospective studies were finally included in the final analysis including 5586 patients. The pooled analysis indicated that ART could achieve better control of prostate cancer and improve OS (p = 0.0006), BRFS (p < 0.0001) and DMFS (p < 0.0001), when compared to SRT. The subgroup analysis of the 5-year OS rate demonstrated that the ART group still had survival advantages compared to the SRT group (p = 0.0006). However, ART and SRT were comparable in 10-year OS rate (p = 0.07). ART had advantages over SRT in both 5-year (p = 0.0003) and 10-year BRFS (p = 0.0003). The subgroup analysis with different follow-up starting points from RP or RT was essentially consistent with the above results. The pooled analysis also showed that ART was superior to ESRT on OS (p = 0.008) and DMFS (p = 0.03), and comparable to ESRT on BRFS (p = 0.1).

Conclusions

According to this meta-analysis, ART could be served as a preferential treatment for patients with APFs after RP to improve prognosis. Certainly, high-quality, multicenter randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are expecting to confirm the outcomes of our meta-analysis in the future.

High-Dose 3D-CRT in the Radical and Postoperative Setting for Prostate Cancer. Analysis of Survival and Late Rectal and Urinary Toxicity

Purpose

The aim of the study was to retrospectively compare outcome and complications of prostate cancer patients treated with a curative and postoperative intent using a pretreatment defined NCCN classification.

Material and methods

A total of 103 patients was treated curatively (RAD) and 94 postoperatively (POST-OP). The mean age was higher in the RAD group (72.6 years; range, 56.4–85.1) than in the POST-OP group (65.4 years; range, 43.9–77) (P <0.0001). According to the NCCN prognostic classification, 13 (12%) patients were at low risk, 48 (47%) at intermediate risk and 42 (41%) at high risk in the RAD group. In the POST-OP group, 13 (14%) patients were low risk, 37 (40%) at intermediate risk and 44 (46%) at high risk. Hormone therapy was used in 98 patients (95%) in the RAD group and 45 patients (47.8%) in the POST-OP group. Patients were treated with three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. The prescription dose was 80 Gy in 2-Gy fractions in the RAD group and 70 Gy in 2-Gy fractions in the POST-OP.

Results

No biochemical, clinical relapse was found in low-risk patients in the RAD group and 1 relapse was found in the POST-OP group. The largest number of relapses occurred (39%) and (33%) in intermediate-high risk in RAD and POST-OP groups, respectively. In the cause-specific survival analysis, no significant differences were found in the high-risk group between RAD and POST-OP groups (P = 0.9). In the analysis of 5-year biochemical relapse-free survival, no significant differences were found in the high-risk group between RAD and POST-OP groups (P = 0.1020).

Conclusions

Radiotherapy in the RAD low-risk group was an excellent treatment. RAD and POST-OP radiotherapy were well tolerated with very low toxicity. The cause-specific survival at 5 years was 95% and 97% for the two treatment groups, RAD and POST-OP, respectively (logrank test, P = 0.2908).

Long-term oncologic outcomes of postoperative adjuvant versus salvage radiotherapy in prostate cancer: Systemic review and meta-analysis of 5-year and 10-year follow-up data

PURPOSE

To evaluate the oncologic outcomes between adjuvant radiotherapy (ART) and salvage radiotherapy (SRT) in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer or with adverse pathologic factors including positive surgical margin and high Gleason score.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched the literature published from January 2000 until December 2014 at MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, ProQuest, and Cochrane Library. To be specific, included were studies comparing ART and SRT settings if they followed up oncologic outcomes more than 5 years.

RESULTS

Overall, 3 retrospective, nonrandomized, observational studies, 1 matched control analysis, and 3 prospective randomized controlled studies met our inclusion criteria including a total of 2,380 patients (1,192 ART vs. 1,188 SRT). Higher favorable results were found in ART than in SRT was seen in the 5-year and 10-year biochemical recurrence (BCR)-free survival (risk ratio [RR], 0.61 and 0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54-0.69 and 0.63-0.76). ART had a significantly higher 5-year progression-free survival rate than that in SRT (RR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.51-0.80), but this was not the same for the 10-year progression-free survival rate (RR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.72-1.08). There was no significant difference for the 5-year and 10-year overall survival rates between ART and SRT (RR, 0.80 and 0.94; 95% CI, 0.59-1.07 and 0.80-1.11).

CONCLUSIONS

ART showed favorable results in BCR-free survival during the 5-year follow-up period. However, the 10-year progression-free survival and overall survival did not show any difference between ART and SRT.

Adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy after prostatectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

In men with adverse prognostic factors (APFs) after radical prostatectomy (RP), the most appropriate timing to administer radiotherapy remains a subject for debate. We conducted a systemic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the therapeutic strategies: adjuvant radiotherapy (ART) and salvage radiotherapy (SRT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We comprehensively searched PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library and performed the meta-analysis of all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and retrospective comparative studies assessing the prognostic factors of ART and SRT.

RESULTS

Between May 1998 and July 2012, 2 matched control studies and 16 retrospective studies including a total of 2629 cases were identified (1404 cases for ART and 1185 cases for SRT). 5-year biochemical failure free survival (BFFS) for ART was longer than that for SRT (Hazard Ratio [HR]: 0.37; 95% CI, 0.30-0.46; p<0.00001, I(2) = 0%). 3-year BFFS was significantly longer in the ART (HR: 0.38; 95% CI, 0.28-0.52; p<0.00001, I(2) = 0%). Overall survival (OS) was also better in the ART (RR: 0.53; 95% CI, 0.41-0.68; p<0.00001, I(2) = 0%), as did disease free survival (DFS) (RR: 0.53; 95% CI, 0.43-0.66; p<0.00001, I(2)  = 0%). Exploratory subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis revealed the similar results with original analysis.

CONCLUSION

ART therapy offers a safe and efficient alternative to SRT with longer 3-year and 5-year BFFS, better OS and DFS. Our recommendation is to suggest ART for patients with APFs and may reduce the need for SRT. Given the inherent limitations of the included studies, future well-designed RCTs are awaited to confirm and update this analysis.

Postoperative radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy: indications and open questions

Biochemical relapse after radical prostatectomy occurs in approximately 15–40% of patients within 5 years. Postoperative radiotherapy is the only curative treatment for these patients. After radical prostatectomy, two different strategies can be offered, adjuvant or salvage radiotherapy. Adjuvant radiotherapy is defined as treatment given directly after surgery in the presence of risk factors (R1 resection, pT3) before biochemical relapse occurs. It consists of 60–64 Gy and was shown to increase biochemical relapse-free survival in three randomized controlled trials and to increase overall survival after a median followup of 12.7 years in one of these trials. Salvage radiotherapy, on the other hand, is given upon biochemical relapse and is the preferred option, by many centers as it does not include patients who might be cured by surgery alone. As described in only retrospective studies the dose for salvage radiotherapy ranges from 64 to 72 Gy and is usually dependent on the absence or presence of macroscopic recurrence. Randomized trials are currently investigating the role of adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy. Patients with biochemical relapse after prostatectomy should at the earliest sign of relapse be referred to salvage radiotherapy and should preferably be treated within a clinical trial.

[pT3R1 prostate cancer : Immediate or delayed radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy?]

Approximately 50-60% of patients with tumor stage pT3R1 after radical prostatectomy (RP) who do not receive adjuvant therapy develop biochemical progression. At present it is unclear whether these patients should undergo immediate adjuvant irradiation or whether a wait and see approach should be adopted while monitoring PSA until the PSA level rises from zero and then initiate salvage radiotherapy (SRT).Three randomized trials showed that an absolute improvement of 20% in the 5-year biochemical no evidence of disease (bNED) could be achieved by administering adjuvant radiotherapy with 60 Gy in patients with tumor stage pT3R1, even with a PSA level around zero after RP. The rate of serious late effects is low. On the other hand, there are numerous, albeit retrospective studies, which provide evidence that SRT after an increase in PSA above zero is an effective treatment, but with higher total doses of 66-70 Gy and a higher rate of late effects. Prognostic factors such as the PSA level before radiotherapy is started, PSA doubling time, R1 resection, PSA velocity, and the Gleason score have a significant impact on both the return of the PSA level to zero and the bNED. Depending on the risk factor, between 20 and 70% of patients again achieve PSA levels around zero after SRT. Retrospective comparative studies suggest a benefit of adjuvant radiotherapy; prospective randomized trials do not exist.Adjuvant radiotherapy after RP in stage pT3R1 tumor and SRT in cases of PSA rising above zero or persistent PSA levels are valid options for the management of high-risk patients after RP. SRT requires higher total doses and thus carries a higher risk of late complications. A benefit has been demonstrated for bNED, but not for survival. The approach should be discussed with the individual patient.

Adjuvant radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy for pathologic T3 or margin-positive prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Results following radical prostatectomy (RP) are suboptimal in patients found to have cancer extending beyond the prostatic capsule (pT3) or present at the resection margins (R1). The optimal postoperative management of such patients is undefined. Therapeutic alternatives include adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) or active surveillance.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were eligible for inclusion in this systematic review if they compared adjuvant RT in the immediate period after RP to active surveillance - with therapies held in reserve for salvage - in prostate cancer patients with pT3 or R1 disease or both. The primary outcome of interest was overall survival.

RESULTS

Three RCTs representing 1,743 patients satisfied the eligibility criteria. Two trials reported data on overall survival; a meta-analysis of the data showed no significant improvement associated with adjuvant RT (hazard ratio=0.91, 95% CI 0.67-1.22, p=0.52). All trials reported data on biochemical progression-free survival (bPFS). On meta-analysis, adjuvant RT significantly improved bPFS (hazard ratio=0.47, 95% CI 0.40-0.56, p<0.00001). One trial provided comparative graded toxicity data; there were no significant differences between arms in severe (grade 3) gastrointestinal or genitourinary toxicity at five years.

CONCLUSIONS

To date, adjuvant RT has not been shown to improve overall survival compared with active surveillance. Longer follow-up from completed RCTs is required to accurately assess this outcome. Adjuvant RT does, however, significantly improve bPFS and is not associated with excess severe late toxicity.

Salvage radiotherapy for patients with PSA relapse after radical prostatectomy: a single institution experience

Background

To assess the efficacy of salvage radiotherapy (RT) for persistent or rising PSA after radical prostatectomy and to determine prognostic factors identifying patients who may benefit from salvage RT.

Methods

Between 1990 and 2003, 59 patients underwent RT for PSA recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Patients received a median of 66 Gy to the prostate bed with 3D or 2D RT. The main end point was biochemical failure after salvage RT, defined as an increase of the serum PSA value >0.2 ng/ml confirmed by a second elevation.

Results

Median follow-up was 38 months. The 3-year and 5-year bDFS rates were 56.1% and 41.2% respectively. According to multivariate analysis, only preRT PSA ≥1 ng/ml was associated with biochemical relapse.

Conclusion

When delivered early, RT is an effective treatment after radical prostatectomy. Only preRT PSA ≥1 ng/ml predicted relapse.

Association of Body Mass Index With Response and Survival in Men With Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Southwest Oncology Group Trials 8894 and 9916

PURPOSE

We evaluated the effect of body mass index on prostate specific antigen response, and progression-free and overall survival in men with androgen dependent or androgen independent metastatic prostate cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We examined the prognostic impact of body mass index in patient cohorts from phase III randomized studies coordinated by the Southwest Oncology Group. The first study included 1,006 men treated with androgen deprivation for metastatic prostate cancer. The second study included 671 patients treated with chemotherapy for metastatic, androgen independent prostate cancer.

RESULTS

Among men with androgen dependent disease, higher body mass index was associated with longer overall (p <0.001) and progression-free (p = 0.009) survival, as well as with an increased likelihood of achieving a prostate specific antigen nadir less than 4 ng/ml (p = 0.008). In multivariate analysis adjusting for risk factors, increasing body mass index was positively correlated with overall survival (p <0.01) and overweight but not obese patients (body mass index 27 to 29.9) had a significantly improved outcome compared to normal weight patients, with hazard ratios for risk of progression and death of 0.82 (95% CI 0.69, 0.98) and 0.75 (95% CI 0.63, 0.89), respectively. Among men with androgen independent prostate cancer, no clear association could be detected between body mass index and progression-free survival, overall survival or prostate specific antigen response.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed higher body mass index to be associated with better overall and progression-free survival in patients with androgen dependent metastatic prostate cancer. Among men who had androgen independent disease, no significant association was found between body mass index and survival.

Endorectal MRI assessment of local relapse after surgery for prostate cancer: A model to define treatment field guidelines for adjuvant radiotherapy in patients at high risk for local failure

PURPOSE

To assess the role of endorectal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in defining local relapse after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer to help to reassess the clinical target volume (CTV) for adjuvant postprostatectomy radiotherapy.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sixty patients undergoing an endorectal MRI before salvage radiotherapy were selected. Spatial coordinates of the relapses were assessed using two reference points: the inferior border of the pubic symphysis (point 1) and the urethro-vesical anastomosis (point 2). Every lesion on MRI was delineated on the planning computed tomography and center of mass coordinates were plotted in two separate diagrams (along the x, y, and z axes) with the urethro-vesical anastomosis as the coordinate origin. An "ideal" CTV was constructed, centered at a point defined by the mathematical means of each of the three coordinates with dimensions defined as twice 2 standard deviations in each of the three axes. The dosimetric impact of the new CTV definition was evaluated in six adjuvantly treated patients.

RESULTS

The ideal CTV center of mass was located at coordinates 0 (x), -5 (y), and -3 (z) mm with SDs of 6 (x), 6 (y), and 9 (z) mm, respectively. The CTV size was 24 (x) x 24 (y) x 36 (z) mm. Significant rectal sparing was observed with the new CTV.

CONCLUSIONS

A CTV with an approximately cylindrical shape (approximately 4 x 3 cm) centered 5 mm posterior and 3 mm inferior to the urethro-vesical anastomosis was defined. Such CTV may reduce the irradiation of normal nontarget tissue in the pelvis potentially improving treatment tolerance.

Adjuvant and salvage treatment options for patients with high-risk prostate cancer treated with radical prostatectomy

The management of high-risk prostate cancer following radical prostatectomy remains a treatment dilemma. Multimodality approaches incorporating surgery, radiation therapy and systemic agents offer the hope of improved cure rates; however, most randomized studies to date are either immature or negative. The systemic treatment options best studied is androgen deprivation, which has been shown to demonstrate a survival advantage in patients with lymph node-positive disease. Systemic chemotherapy has demonstrated a modest survival advantage in androgen-independent disease. Current studies are exploring its role in the adjuvant and neo-adjuvant setting. Lastly, recent randomized trials have demonstrated a biochemical advantage to adjuvant radiation therapy, but it remains to be seen if this will translate to an improvement is survival end points or if salvage radiation therapy would be just as effective. In this update article, we review the use of external beam radiation therapy and systemic agents in combination with surgery for high-risk prostate cancer patients.

Long-term results and predictive factors of three-dimensional conformal salvage radiotherapy for biochemical relapse after prostatectomy

PURPOSE

Salvage radiotherapy (RT) is used to treat patients with biochemical failure after radical prostatectomy (RP). Although retrospective series have demonstrated that salvage RT will result in biochemical response in approximately 75% of patients, long-term response is much lower (20-40%). The purpose of this study was to determine prognostic factors related to the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) outcome after salvage RT.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Between 1991 and 2004, 171 patients received salvage RT at the University of Heidelberg. Patient age, margin status, Gleason score, tumor grading, pathologic tumor stage, pre-RP and pre-RT PSA levels, and time from RP to rise of PSA were analyzed.

RESULTS

Median follow-up time was 39 months. The 5-year overall and clinical relapse-free survival were 93.8% and 80.8%, respectively. After RT serum PSA decreased in 141 patients (82.5%). The 5-year biochemical relapse-free survival was 35.1%. Univariate analysis showed following statistically significant predictors of PSA recurrence after RT: preoperative PSA level (p = 0.035), pathologic tumor classification (p = 0.001), Gleason score (p < 0.001), tumor grading (p = 0.004), and pre-RT PSA level (p = 0.031). On multivariate analysis, only Gleason score (p = 0.047) and pre-RT PSA level (p = 0.049) were found to be independently predictive of PSA recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study represents one of the largest retrospective studies analyzing the outcome of patients treated with salvage RT at a single institution. Our findings suggest that patients with Gleason score <7 and low pre-RT PSA levels are the best candidates for salvage RT, whereas patients with high-grade lesions should be considered for additional treatment (e.g., hormonal therapy).

Approaching clinical problems in prostate cancer radiotherapy using the number needed to treat (NNT) technique

The goals of this article are to review the application of the number needed to treat (NNT) concept to selected clinical problems in prostate cancer radiotherapy. Particular emphasis will be placed on (1) comparison of radiotherapy with other treatment options for early-stage disease, (2) the role of hormone therapy in addition to radiotherapy over a spectrum of disease presentation, and (3) systematic comparison of adjuvant versus salvage radiotherapy in the post-prostatectomy setting. Limitations of NNT calculations based on non-randomized comparisons also are discussed.

[Prognostic implications of positive margins in radical prostatectomy specimens]

To evaluate the histopathologic implication of positive margins of prostatectomy specimens in the biochemical recurrence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study group consisted of 290 patients with clinically localized prostate cancer who were treated by radical retropubic prostatectomy. Patients with neoadjuvant hormonal therapy and positive lymph nodes were excluded. The mean age at the time of surgery was 63 years (range 47-73); 166 (57.2%) patients were T1c and 124 (42.8%) T2; the average time of folow-up was of 4 years (range 1-12). Positive surgical margins were defined as the presence of cancer cells at the surface inked of prostatectomy specimens. They were classified as: Margin for capsular incision (without extraprostatic extension evidence)/ margin for extraprostatic extension, margin with smooth rounded surface/margin with irregular surface, margin < or = 4 mm/margin > 4 mm, unifocal margin/multifocal margin. We define biochemical recurrence if the PSA exceeds 0.20 ng/ml in two consecutive determinations.

RESULTS

The overall rate of positive margins was 65/290 (22.4%). The 5-year survival free of biochemical recurrence was as follows: Negative margins 71% vs positive margins 44% (p < 0.001); positive margins for capsular incision 84% vs positive margins for extraprostatic extension 33% (p < 0.01); positive margins with smooth rounded surface 58% vs positive margins with irregular surface 26% (p < 0.01); positive margins < or = 4 mm 57% vs positive margins > 4 mm 32% (p < 0.05); unifocal margins 53% vs multifocal margins 0% (p < 0.01). The multivariate analysis revealed that preoperative PSA, Gleason score and pathological classification were the best predictors of biochemical recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

Two groups are established of positive margin. The first group with high probability of biochemical recurrence: margin for extraprostatic. The second group with less probability of biochemical recurrence: margin for capsular incision, margin with smooth rounded surface, margin < or = 4 mm and unifocal margin.

Prostate-specific antigen velocity accurately predicts response to salvage radiotherapy in men with biochemical relapse after radical prostatectomy

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether prostate-specific antigen (PSA) velocity (PSAV), used as a selection criterion for salvage radiotherapy (RT) after radical prostatectomy (RP), predicts the likelihood of response to RT in men with biochemical relapse.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 48 patients who had undergone salvage RT for biochemical relapse after RP. All men were followed up with serial PSA measurements for a minimum of 6 months from their initial PSA recurrence, and RT was only offered to those patients with a serum PSA level remaining at less than 1.0 ng/mL. The response to RT was defined as maintenance of a PSA level of less than 0.1 ng/mL. The pathologic and clinical parameters, including PSAV, were examined to determine their individual ability to predict the response to RT.

RESULTS

Of the 48 patients, 30 had maintained a PSA level of less than 0.1 ng/mL at a median follow-up of 16 months. The PSAV was strongly predictive of the likelihood of a response to salvage RT. The median relapse-free survival time for patients with a PSAV of less than 0.035 ng/mL/mo was 28 months compared with 16 months for patients with a PSAV greater than 0.035 ng/mL/mo. All other parameters tested, including Gleason score, seminal vesicle invasion, extracapsular extension, and margin status, were not predictive of the likelihood of a response to RT.

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study, PSAV accurately predicted the likelihood of response to salvage RT in men with biochemical relapse after RP. No other pathologic parameters predicted the likelihood of response to RT. Using PSAV as a sole selection criterion for salvage RT after RP may allow improvement in the historically low rates of durable response.

Feasibility and preliminary outcome of salvage combined HDR brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) for local recurrences after radical prostatectomy

PURPOSE

Feasibility of combined fractionated intensity modulated brachytherapy (IMBT) and external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) as well as the effect of local dose escalation was investigated in a non-randomized retrospective observation trial for histologically-proven macroscopic local recurrences of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Thirty-five patients with transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) detectable tumors were treated. Applied dose per IMBT fraction was 15 Gy, prescribed on the target (TRUS visible tumor) surface. For the first 21 patients, two fractions of IMBT were delivered in 2 weeks interval, complementary to 30 Gy EBRT to the small pelvis. Further, as second step of dose escalation, 14 patients were treated with 2 x 15 Gy IMBT combined with 40 Gy EBRT. The total treatment time was 4 and 5 weeks, respectively.

RESULTS

PSA was decreased in 34 out of 35 patients post-therapeutically. After a mean follow-up of 27 months, 32 out of 35 patients are alive. However, in 67% of the patients, we observed postimplant PSA elevation with or without detectable local and/or systemic progress. The mean duration of biochemical non-evidence of disease (bNED) after radiation was 12 months for all patients (31% in the 30 Gy group and 42% in the 40 Gy group). No RTOG/EORTC grade III or IV side effects were registered during/after radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Combined EBRT and IMBT-boost of TRUS detectable recurrences of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy seems to be a feasible method of salvage treatment. These early results need to be confirmed by further prospective randomized trials and by longer follow-up in all dose groups.

Postprostatectomy adjuvant versus salvage radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Radiotherapy (RT) has been used with success after radical retropubic prostatectomy (RRP), both in the adjuvant and salvage settings. The purpose of the current investigation was to systematically compare adjuvant versus salvage RT in a manner that incorporates both treatment efficacy and complications.

METHODS

A literature review was performed of reports of post-RRP salvage and adjuvant RT, and 12 trials comprising 1060 patients met the appropriate inclusion criteria. The biochemical failure-free survival in each study/arm was tabulated, and these values were entered into a model to compute an unadjusted number-needed-to treat (NNT). RT complications were then considered, accounting for differences in toxicity incidences in the salvage versus adjuvant setting, to compute complication-adjusted NNTs. In all the trials, the signs and magnitudes of the NNTs obtained were used to compare adjuvant with salvage RT.

RESULTS

The absolute NNT analysis showed an advantage of adjuvant compared with salvage RT. After adjustment for RT complications, however, the advantage shifted to salvage RT. This transition point from superiority of adjuvant RT to superiority of salvage RT was sensitive to the estimated incidence and severity of RT side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Adjuvant post-RRP RT was advantageous in comparison to salvage RT if the side effects of RT were estimated to be negligible. However, with moderate incidence/severity of RT side effects, salvage RT was advantageous. The findings herein must be tested in a prospective study in which both health-related quality of life and cancer control are documented in patients receiving adjuvant versus salvage post-RRP RT. Further work is needed to better estimate parameters entered into the model to determine the precise transition point between adjuvant and salvage RT with modern RT techniques.

Effect of Pelvic Lymph Node Irradiation in Salvage Therapy for Patients with Prostate Cancer with a Biochemical Relapse Following Radical Prostatectomy

Radiation therapy (RT) as salvage treatment for a biochemical relapse following prostatectomy has been shown to be of benefit measured by serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) control. However, identifying a target volume for RT has not been well established in this setting. In this study, the results of postoperative RT delivered to extended fields (EFs), prostatic fossa, and pelvic lymph nodes encompassing at least the obturator lymph nodes are compared with treatment of limited fields (LFs), prostatic fossa only, as salvage treatment for patients with a biochemical relapse. Between 1987 and 1999, 68 patients were referred for postprostatectomy RT. Of these patients, 46 were treated for salvage intent by RT alone without adjuvant hormones, 21 patients were treated to EFs and 25 treated to LFs. All patients were treated using 4-field plans. The mean field sizes measured 15 x 14 cm (AP/PA fields) and 12 x 14 cm LFs for the EFs and 10 x 10 cm (AP/PA fields) and 10 x 10 cm (lateral fields) for the LFs. The mean total doses for the EFs and LFs were 6300 and 6200 cGy, respectively, using 180-cGy daily increments. All patients treated to the EFs received boost doses to the prostatic fossa after 4500 cGy total dose to the pelvis. The 10-year actuarial biochemical disease-free survival (DFS) rates for the EF and LF groups were 52% and 47%, respectively (P = 0.523). The distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS) rates were 77% and 78% (P = 0.925), and overall survival (OS) rates were 88% and 68% (P = 0.615) for the EF and LF group, respectively. A subset analysis of patients with adverse pathologic features (including tumor-involved surgical margins, lymph node involvement, seminal vesicle involvement, extracapsular extension, and/or perineural invasion) showed biochemical DFS rates of 57% and 44% (P = 0.217) for the EF and LF groups, respectively. The DMFS rates were 84% and 72% (P = 0.423), and OS rates 92% and 61% (P = 0.366) for the EF and LF groups, respectively. For patients with increasing PSA levels after a radical prostatectomy, salvage irradiation is a viable option for biochemical control. Our results suggest that EF radiation with coverage of pelvic lymph nodes shows a trend toward better PSA control in those with adverse pathologic features, although statistical significance was not achieved because of the limited number of patients who satisfied the restricted criteria excluding use of adjuvant hormones.

Diagnosis of local recurrence after radical prostatectomy

In the long-term there is biochemical evidence of recurrent prostate carcinoma in approximately 40% of patients after radical prostatectomy (RP). Detecting the site of recurrence (local vs distant) is critical for defining the optimum treatment. Pathological and clinical variables, e.g. Gleason score, involvement of seminal vesicles or lymph nodes, margin status at surgery, and especially the timing and pattern of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) recurrence, may help to predict the site of relapse. Transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) of the prostatic fossa in association with TRUS-guided needle biopsy is considered more sensitive than a digital rectal examination for detecting local recurrence, especially if PSA levels are low. Although it cannot detect minimal tumour mass at very low PSA levels (< 1 ng/mL) TRUS biopsy is presently the most sensitive method for detecting local recurrence. Nevertheless, the conclusive role of biopsy of the vesico-urethral anastomosis remains unclear. However, 111In-capromab pendetide scintigraphy and [11C]-choline tomography (which are better than conventional imaging for detecting metastatic tumour), have low detection rates for local disease and are considered complementary to TRUS in this setting. Patients with a high PSA after RP may be managed with external beam salvage radiotherapy. An initial PSA of < 1 ng/mL, Gleason score < 8 and radiation dose of 66-70 Gy seem to be key factors in determining success. Although a positive TRUS anastomotic biopsy may predict a better outcome after radiation therapy, the need to take a biopsy in the event of PSA failure remains under investigation. The value of salvage radiation to the prostatic bed for PSA-only progression after RP remains in question.

Prostate cancer: radical prostatectomy

Today, more men than ever before are being followed after radical prostatectomy. Prognosis and follow-up should be based on the pathologic specimen. Measurable prostate-specific antigen (PSA) after surgery defines failure, with time to detectable PSA and rate of PSA rise being useful prognostic factors. The natural history of untreated biochemical failure is protracted, a fact to be considered in discussions of adjuvant treatment. Early in disease recurrence, imaging studies to locate residual disease rarely are useful clinically. Both adjuvant and salvage radiation to the prostate bed have benefits and risks, but neither is superior in overall prostate cancer survival. The timing of hormone therapy remains largely empiric. The promise of effective cytotoxic chemotherapy still is greater than its actual benefits, although novel cytostatic agents are being developed. The future management of this disease will improve with better molecular definition of risk and therapeutic response.

Salvage radiotherapy for biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy: a study of 62 patients

OBJECTIVES

To determine the predictive factors of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) recurrence after salvage radiotherapy (RT) for biochemical recurrence following radical prostatectomy (RP) to identify patients who may benefit from this treatment.

METHODS

From June 1992 to January 2002, 62 patients experiencing PSA recurrence after RP were treated with RT at a dose of 65 Gy. No patient received hormonal therapy. PSA recurrence after RT was defined as three consecutive increased PSA measurements. The risk of experiencing PSA recurrence after RT was analyzed according to 10 factors: patient age, pre-RP PSA level, pathologic stage, Gleason score, surgical margin status, PSA nadir after RP, time to PSA recurrence after RP, pre-RT PSA level, PSA nadir after RT, and length of follow-up after RT.

RESULTS

With a mean follow-up of 44 months (range 3 to 110), 23 patients (37.1%) experienced PSA recurrence after RT. Using univariate analysis, six factors were found to be predictive of PSA recurrence after RT: the length of follow-up after RT (P <0.0001), PSA nadir after RP (P = 0.0004), time to PSA recurrence after RP (P = 0.003), pre-RP PSA level (P = 0.008), Gleason score (P = 0.011), and pre-RT PSA level (P = 0.028). Using multivariate analysis, only the Gleason score (P = 0.015) and length of follow-up after RT (P = 0.02) were found to be predictive of PSA recurrence after RT. A Gleason score greater than 7 was a significant predictor of PSA recurrence after salvage RT (P = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

In our experience, the Gleason score and length of follow-up were the sole independent predictors of PSA recurrence after salvage RT. Our findings suggest that patients with a Gleason score of 7 or less are more likely to benefit from salvage RT after RP and that the durability of the PSA response may be only transient.

Adjuvant external radiation therapy following radical prostatectomy for node-negative prostate cancer

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The use of adjuvant radiation therapy following prostatectomy is commonplace. The purpose of this review is to summarize completed and ongoing clinical trials and to review recent relevant studies and debates related to this subject.

RECENT FINDINGS

The routine use of adjuvant radiation therapy remains a controversial topic. Recent retrospective matched-pair analyses support its use in appropriately selected patients with positive margins, extraprostatic extension or seminal vesicle invasion, but interpretation of these and other data vary. Although the 5-year biochemical recurrence rate using adjuvant radiotherapy may be decreased from approximately 40 to 10% in patients with either positive margins or extraprostatic extension, its effect on cause-specific mortality is unclear. Two prospective randomized trials with cumulative enrollment of over 1400 patients have examined the role of adjuvant radiation therapy compared with observation following prostatectomy: one trial was a National Cancer Institute-sponsored Intergroup study coordinated by the Southwest Oncology Group, and the other was from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer. Currently, the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group is conducting a three-arm trial, with broadened stratification criteria as compared with previous trials. This ongoing trial examines the use of adjuvant radiotherapy with or without adjuvant androgen deprivation following prostatectomy and also androgen deprivation alone in patients at high risk for disease relapse.

SUMMARY

In lieu of data from completed randomized trials, indications for immediate adjuvant radiation therapy following prostatectomy exist and are supported by retrospective data with respect to reducing local and biochemical recurrence rates. However, data demonstrating an overall or cause-specific survival advantage for adjuvant radiotherapy as compared with delayed salvage therapy do not exist.