Prospective, randomized comparison of epidural versus parenteral opioid analgesia in thoracic trauma

Comparative Analysis of Intravenous Opioids Versus Thoracic Epidural Anesthesia in Fractured Rib Pain Management: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Rib fractures, common among trauma victims, lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Managing the associated pain is challenging, with IV opioids and thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA) being utilized. While epidural analgesia is often preferred for fractured rib pain, existing data encompasses both lumbar and thoracic approaches. This review aimed to compare TEA and IV opioids for persistent rib fracture pain. A comprehensive search across five databases yielded 987 articles, of which seven met the eligibility criteria. Outcomes were categorized into primary (pain reduction) and secondary (mortality, hospital/ICU stays, analgesia-related complications) endpoints. Analyzed with Review Manager (RevMan) Version 5.4.1 (2020; The Cochrane Collaboration, London, United Kingdom), the pooled data from two sources showed TEA significantly more effective in reducing pain than IV opioids (standardized mean difference (SMD): 2.23; 95%CI: 1.65-2.82; p < 0.00001). Similarly, TEA was associated with shorter ICU stays (SMD: 0.73; 95%CI: 0.33-1.13; p = 0.0004), while hospitalization duration showed no substantial difference (SMD: 0.82; 95%CI: -0.34-1.98). Mortality rates also did not significantly differ between TEA and IV opioids (risk ratio (RR): 1.20; 95%CI: 0.36-4.01; p = 0.77). Subgroup analysis revealed fewer pneumonia cases with TEA (RR: 2.06; 95%CI: 1.07-3.96; P = 0.03), with no notable disparities in other complications. While TEA's superiority in pain relief for rib fractures suggests it is the preferred analgesic, the recommendation's strength is tempered by the low methodological quality of supporting articles.

Regional anesthesia and POCUS in the intensive care unit

This chapter focuses on resident recruitment and recent US National Resident Matching Program changes and the impact in the evaluation and ranking of applicants within the specialty of anesthesiology. Recruitment challenges are examined as well as program strategies and potential future directions. Also discussed are DEI initiatives within the recruitment process.

Timing of regional analgesia in elderly patients with blunt chest-wall injury

BACKGROUND

Rib fractures represent a typical injury pattern in older people and are associated with respiratory morbidity and mortality. Regional analgesia modalities are adjuncts for pain management, but the optimal timing for their initiation remains understudied. We hypothesized that early regional analgesia would have similar outcomes to late regional analgesia.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Improvement Program database from 2017 to 2019. We included patients ≥65 years old admitted with blunt chest wall trauma who received regional analgesia. We divided patients into 2 groups: (1) early regional analgesia (within 24 hours of admission) and (2) late regional analgesia (>24 hours). The outcomes evaluated were ventilator-associated pneumonia, mortality, unplanned intensive care unit admission, unplanned intubation, discharge to home, and duration of stay. Univariable analysis and multivariable logistic regression adjusting for patient and injury characteristics, trauma center level, and respiratory interventions were performed.

RESULTS

In the study, 2,248 patients were included. The mean (standard deviation) age was 75.3 (6.9), and 52.7% were male. The median injury severity score (interquartile range) was 13 (9-17). The early regional analgesia group had a decreased incidence of unplanned intubation (2.7% vs 5.3%, P = .002), unplanned intensive care unit admission (4.9% vs 8.4%, P < .001), and shorter mean duration of stay (5.5 vs 6.5 days, P = .002). In multivariable analysis, early regional analgesia was associated with decreased odds of unplanned intubation (odds ratio, 0.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.36-0.94; P = .026), unplanned intensive care unit admission (odds ratio, 0.60; 95% confidence interval, 0.041-0.86; P = .006), and increased odds of discharge to home (odds ratio, 1.27; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.55; P = .019). After multivariable adjustment, no significant difference was found for ventilator-associated pneumonia or mortality (odds ratio, 0.60; 95% confidence interval, 0.34-1.04; P = .070).

CONCLUSION

Early regional analgesia initiation is associated with improved outcomes in older people with blunt chest wall injuries. Geriatric trauma care bundles targeting early initiation of regional analgesia can potentially decrease complications and resource use.

Non-surgical management and analgesia strategies for older adults with multiple rib fractures: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and joint practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma and the Chest Wall Injury Society

BACKGROUND

Chest wall injury in older adults is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Optimal nonsurgical management strategies for these patients have not been fully defined regarding level of care, incentive spirometry (IS), noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV), and the use of ketamine, epidural, and other locoregional approaches to analgesia.

METHODS

Relevant questions regarding older patients with significant chest wall injury with patient population(s), intervention(s), comparison(s), and appropriate selected outcomes were chosen. These focused on intensive care unit (ICU) admission, IS, NIPPV, and analgesia including ketamine, epidural analgesia, and locoregional nerve blocks. A systematic literature search and review were conducted, our data were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively, and the quality of evidence was assessed per the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation methodology. No funding was used.

RESULTS

Our literature review (PROSPERO 2020-CRD42020201241, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane, Web of Science, January 15, 2020) resulted in 151 studies. Intensive care unit admission was qualitatively not superior for any defined cohort other than by clinical assessment. Poor IS performance was associated with prolonged hospital length of stay, pulmonary complications, and unplanned ICU admission. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation was associated with 85% reduction in odds of pneumonia ( p < 0.0001) and 81% reduction in odds of mortality ( p = 0.03) in suitable patients without risk of airway loss. Ketamine use demonstrated no significant reduction in pain score but a trend toward reduced opioid use. Epidural and other locoregional analgesia techniques did not affect pneumonia, length of mechanical ventilation, hospital length of stay, or mortality.

CONCLUSION

We do not recommend for or against routine ICU admission. We recommend use of IS to inform ICU status and conditionally recommend use of NIPPV in patients without risk of airway loss. We offer no recommendation for or against ketamine, epidural, or other locoregional analgesia.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Systematic Review/Meta-analysis; Level IV.

Effect of coolant spray on rib fracture pain of geriatric blunt thoracic trauma patients: a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of cryotherapy in elderly patients with rib fractures due to blunt thoracic trauma.

METHODS

In this prospective randomized controlled study, geriatric patients were assigned to groups to receive either coolant spray (n=51) or placebo spray (n=50). The visual analog scale scores of all patients were recorded before starting spray application (V0), as well as at 10th (V1), 20th (V2), 30th (V3), 60th (V4), 120th (V5), and 360th (V6) minute. The mean decreases in the visual analog scale scores were calculated.

RESULTS

The differences between V0 and V1, V0 and V2, V0 and V3, and V0 and V4 mean visual analog scale scores measured in the coolant spray group were found to be significantly higher (p<0.001). In V1, V2, V3, and V4 measurements, the incidence of "clinical effectiveness" in the coolant spray group was significantly higher than in the placebo group (p=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Coolant spray therapy can be used as a component of multimodal therapy to provide adequate analgesia due to rib fractures in geriatric patients.

Surgical and perioperative management of flail chest with titanium plates: a French cohort series from a thoracic referral center

BACKGROUND

The development of titanium claw plates has made rib osteosynthesis easy to achieve and led to a renewed interest for this surgery. We report the management of patients referred to the intensive care unit (ICU) of a referral center for surgical rib fracture fixation (SRFF) after chest trauma.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective observational cohort study describing the patients' characteristics and analyzing the determinants of postoperative complications.

RESULTS

From November 2013 to December 2016, 42 patients were referred to our center for SRFF: 12 patients (29%) had acute respiratory failure, 6 of whom received invasive mechanical ventilation. The Thoracic Trauma Severity Score (TTSS) was 11.0 [9-12], with 7 [5-9] broken ribs and a flail chest in 92% of cases. A postoperative complication occurred in 18 patients (43%). Five patients developed ARDS (12%). Postoperative pneumonia occurred in 11 patients (26%). Two patients died in the ICU. In multivariable analysis, the Thoracic Trauma Severity Score (TTSS) (OR = 1.89; CI 95% 1.12-3.17; p = 0.016) and the Simplified Acute Physiology Score II without age (OR = 1.17; CI 95% 1.02-1.34; p = 0.024) were independently associated with the occurrence of a postoperative complication.

CONCLUSION

The TTSS score appears to be accurate for determining thoracic trauma severity. Short and long-term benefit of Surgical Rib Fracture Fixation should be assessed, particularly in non-mechanically ventilated patients.

Management and outcomes of rib fractures in patients with isolated blunt thoracic trauma: Results of the Aotearoa New Zealand RiBZ study

AIM

Rib fractures are common and associated with significant morbidity and mortality. There is limited literature on patient care and outcomes in Aotearoa New Zealand (AoNZ). The aim of this study is to describe key clinical outcomes and management interventions for patients with rib fractures across AoNZ.

METHODS

A national prospective multicenter observational cohort study was performed. Patients admitted between 1 December 2020 and 28 February 2021 with one or more radiologically proven rib fractures and an Abbreviated Injury Score of the head or abdomen of less than 3 were included. The primary outcomes of interest were the rates of thirty-day pneumonia, re-presentation and mortality. The secondary outcomes of interest were rate of surgical stabilisation of rib fractures (SSRF) and pain management of patients with rib fractures. Binomial logistic regression was performed for the primary outcomes and funnel plots were created of the inter-hospital variation in pneumonia.

RESULTS

Fourteen AoNZ hospitals and 407 patients were included. Mean age was 57.4 (SD 18.7), 28% were female, 15% Māori and 85% non-Māori. The median number of rib fractures was 4. The rate of pneumonia, re-presentation and mortality was 11%, 8% and 2%, respectively. Logistic regression found the odds of pneumonia increased with each additional rib fracture (OR 1.15 95% CI 1.05-1.25) and the odds of re-presentation increased with age (OR 1.028 95% CI 1.005-1.051) and Māori ethnicity (OR 2.754 95% CI 1.077-7.045). The funnel plot of inter-hospital variation in pneumonia rate adjusted for clinically plausible variables found no centre lay outside the 95% confidence interval. SSRF was performed in 2% of patients. 58% of patients had a pain team review and 23% a regional block.

CONCLUSION

This study describes clinical outcomes for patients with isolated rib fractures from multiple hospitals in AoNZ. A moderate pneumonia rate of 11% was found which is likely amendable to reduction with quality improvement initiatives. Consideration should be given to further resource and improve the access to SSRF and regional analgesia given the low utilization found across AoNZ. A higher re-presentation rate in Māori and elderly patients was found which needs further investigation.

Pain Management Considerations in Patients with Opioid Use Disorder Requiring Critical Care

The opioid epidemic has resulted in increased opioid-related critical care admissions, presenting challenges in acute pain management. Limited guidance exists in the management of critically ill patients with opioid use disorder (OUD). This narrative review provides the intensive care unit (ICU) clinician with guidance and treatment options, including non-opioid analgesia, for patients receiving medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) and for patients actively misusing opioids. Verification and continuation of the patient's outpatient MOUD regimen, specifically buprenorphine and methadone formulations, assessment of pain and opioid withdrawal, and treatment of acute pain with non-opioid analgesia, nonpharmacologic strategies, and short-acting opioids as needed, are all essential to adequate management of acute pain in patients with OUD. A multidisciplinary approach to treatment and discharge planning in patients with OUD may be beneficial to engage patients with OUD early in their hospital stay to prevent withdrawal, stabilize their OUD, and to reduce the risk of unplanned discharge and other associated morbidity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Blunt Chest Trauma and Regional Anesthesia for Analgesia of Multitrauma Patients in French Intensive Care Units: A National Survey

BACKGROUND

Chest injuries are associated with mortality among patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) and require multimodal pain management strategies, including regional anesthesia (RA). We conducted a survey to determine the current practices of physicians working in ICUs regarding RA for the management of chest trauma in patients with multiple traumas.

METHODS

An online questionnaire was sent to medical doctors (n = 1230) working in French ICUs, using the Société Française d'Anesthésie Réanimation (SFAR) mailing list of its members. The questionnaire addressed 3 categories: general characteristics, practical aspects of RA, and indications and contraindications.

RESULTS

Among the 333 respondents (response rate = 27%), 78% and 40% of 156 respondents declared that they would consider using thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA) and thoracic paravertebral blockade (TPB), respectively. The main benefits declared for performing RA were the ability to have effective analgesia, a more effective cough, and early rehabilitation. For 70% of the respondents, trauma patients with a theoretical indication of RA did not receive TEA or TPB for the following reasons: the ICU had no experience of RA (62%), no anesthesiologist-intensivist working in the ICU (46%), contraindications (27%), ignorance of the SFAR guidelines (19%), and no RA protocol available (13%). In this survey, 95% of the respondents thought the prognosis of trauma patients could be influenced by the use of RA.

CONCLUSIONS

While TEA and TPB are underused because of several limitations related to the patterns of injuries in multitrauma patients, lack of both experience and confidence in combination with the absence of available protocols appear to be the major restraining factors, even if physicians are aware that patients' outcomes could be improved by RA. These results suggest the need to strengthen initial training and provide continuing education about RA in the ICU.

Epidural catheters are associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism in trauma

Little is known about the association between epidural catheters (EC) and venous thromboembolism (VTE) in trauma. We sought to study this association and hypothesized that trauma patients with EC were more likely to develop VTE. Using the Pennsylvania Trauma Outcomes Study (PTOS) registry, we identified all adult trauma patients (age ≥ 18) admitted for at least 2 days between 1/2013 and 12/2017. Baseline characteristics and outcome variables were compared between patients who underwent EC placement and those who did not. The primary outcome was development of VTE. 147,721 patients met inclusion criteria; 2247 (1.5%) developed a VTE. Patients were mostly white (85%), male (56%), with blunt trauma (94%). 776 (0.5%) had an EC placed. Patients who underwent EC placement were more likely to develop a VTE (2.8% vs. 1.5%, p = 0.003). After adjusting for covariates, patients with EC were 1.6 times more likely to develop VTE (95% CI 1.1-2.5). The overall rate of VTE was low and associated with the use of EC. Future work should focus on determining the underlying mechanisms.

Epidural analgesia in ICU chest trauma patients with fractured ribs: retrospective study of pain control and intubation requirements

BACKGROUND

Nonintubated chest trauma patients with fractured ribs admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) are at risk for complications and may require invasive ventilation at some point. Effective pain control is essential. We assessed whether epidural analgesia (EA) in patients with fractured ribs who were not intubated at ICU admission decreased the need for invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). We also looked for risk factors for IMV.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

This retrospective, observational, multicenter study conducted in 40 ICUs in France included consecutive patients with three or more fractured ribs who were not intubated at admission between July 2013 and July 2015.

RESULTS

Of the 974 study patients, 788 were included in the analysis of intubation predictors. EA was used in 130 (16.5%) patients, and 65 (8.2%) patients required IMV. Factors independently associated with IMV were chronic respiratory disease (P = 0.008), worse SAPS II (P < 0.0001), flail chest (P = 0.02), worse Injury Severity Score (P = 0.0003), higher respiratory rate at admission (P = 0.02), alcohol withdrawal syndrome (P < 0.001), and noninvasive ventilation (P = 0.04). EA was not associated with decreases in IMV requirements, median numerical rating scale pain score, or intravenous morphine requirements from day 1 to day 7.

CONCLUSIONS

EA was not associated with a lower risk of IMV in chest trauma patients with at least 3 fractured ribs, moderate pain, and no intubation on admission. Further studies are needed to clarify the optimal pain control strategy in chest trauma patients admitted to the ICU, notably those with severe pain or high opioid requirements.

Chest Trauma: Current Recommendations for Rib Fractures, Pneumothorax, and Other Injuries

Purpose of Review

This article provides an overview of the common and important chest injuries that the anesthesiologist may encounter in patients following trauma including blunt injury, pneumothorax, hemothorax, blunt aortic injury, and blunt cardiac injury.

Recent Findings

Rib fractures are frequently associated with chest injury and are associated with significant pain and other complications. Regional anesthesia techniques combined with a multimodal analgesic strategy can improve patient outcomes and reduce complications. There is increasing evidence for paravertebral blocks for this indication, and the myofascial plane blocks are a popular emerging technique. Recent changes to recommended management of tension pneumothorax are also described.

Summary

Chest trauma is commonly encountered, and anesthesiologists have the potential to significantly improve morbidity and mortality in this group of patients.

Dexmedetomidine to facilitate non-invasive ventilation after blunt chest trauma: A randomised, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled pilot study

BACKGROUND

Although non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is recommended in patients with chest trauma, this procedure may expose to discomfort and even failure due to agitation or excessive pain. We tested the impact of dexmedetomidine on the duration of the first session of NIV.

METHODS

This randomised, crossover study enrolled 19 patients with blunt chest trauma who needed NIV. During one cycle comprising two NIV sessions, patients received in a random order an intravenous infusion of dexmedetomidine (0.7mcg/kg/h) and placebo (saline solution) that was initiated 60min prior to NIV. Dexmedetomidine (or placebo) was titrated to maintain a Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale (RASS) score between 0 and -3. A 6-h washout period was observed between NIV sessions. The reproducibility of the drug-related effects was tested during a second cycle of two NIV sessions.

RESULTS

During the first cycle, dexmedetomidine prolonged the duration of NIV compared to placebo: 280min (118-450) (median, 25-75th quartiles) versus 120min (68-287) respectively, corresponding to a median increased duration of 96min (12-180) (P=0.03). Dexmedetomidine was associated with a lower score for RASS: -0.8 (-1.0;0.0) versus 0.0 (-0.5;0.0) (P<0.01), and reduced respiratory discomfort according to the 10cm visual similar scale: 0.6cm (0.0-3.0) versus 2.2cm (0.0-5.3) (P=0.05). Pain scores, morphine consumption, and blood gas measurements were comparable between groups. No difference in the duration of non-invasive ventilation was found during the second cycle.

CONCLUSIONS

In this pilot trial, dexmedetomidine could facilitate the acceptance of the first session of non-invasive ventilation for patients with chest trauma.

Rib soft fixation produces better analgesic effects and is associated with cytokine changes within the spinal cord in a rat rib fracture model

Traumatic rib fracture can cause severe pain and is usually associated with the depression of respiratory drive followed by severe respiratory complications. It is critical for patients with rib fracture to receive adequate analgesia. However, strong opioids and other analgesics often produces side effects and may even cause respiratory suppression. Meanwhile, rib fixation now has become a popular method for treating rib fracture patients. However, the actual molecular mechanism leading to its effectiveness as an analgesia has not been fully investigated, and the best analgesic method for its use in rib fracture patients has not yet been determined. We developed a new animal model for rib fracture and evaluated changes in pain severity after rib fixation. Our data indicated significantly better analgesic behavior if a soft string rib fixation is performed, which is associated with cytokine (interleukine-6 and interleukine-10) decreases in the spinal cord and co-localization with glia cells. Our results provided a treatment suggestion for rib fracture patients and the possible molecular mechanism for the analgesic effects. Further molecular mechanisms and the best therapeutic methods are still needed for this severe painful condition.

Choice of Analgesia in Patients with Critical Skeletal Trauma

Introduction

The adequate management of thoracic trauma requires a systematic approach including pain control, respiratory therapy, and mobility achieved by surgical fixation. Failure to achieve pain control prolongs hospital stay. There are several options for achieving analgesia including epidural catheters, intravenous narcotics, intercostal, paravertebral or interpleural blocks, oral opioids, or simply a combination of the aforementioned interventions. In this study, we aim to compare the efficacy of thoracic epidural analgesia with systemic analgesia in patients with polytrauma.

Methods

This prospective study was conducted in the intensive care unit (ICU) of District Headquarters Hospital in Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. Patients of age ≥18 years with skeletal trauma - rib fractures, limb fractures, and pelvic fractures - were included in the study. Group A patients were given epidural - bupivacaine and tramadol. Group B patients were given systemic analgesia with intravenous opioids. The severity of pain was assessed on the visual analogue scale (VAS) at time 0, 24 hours, and 48 hours. Data was entered and analysis was performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 22.0.

Results

At 24 hours and 48 hours interval, group A showed a lower mean VAS score than group B (p = 0.74; p = 0.03). Group A required lesser mean doses of additional short-acting analgesics than group B (4.87 ± 1.06 vs. 6.77 ± 1.44; p < 0.0001). In Group A, 94% were discharged and the mortality rate was 6%; in group B, 86% were discharged and the mortality rate was 14% (p = 0.21).

Conclusion

Epidural analgesia provides better pain relief and requires fewer short-acting supplementing analgesics as compared to systemic analgesia in patients with multi-trauma.

Epidural Analgesia for Severe Chest Trauma: An Analysis of Current Practice on the Efficacy and Safety

Background

Adequate pain control is essential in the treatment of patients with traumatic rib fractures. Although epidural analgesia is recommended in international guidelines, the use remains debatable and is not undisputed. The aim of this study was to describe the efficacy and safety of epidural analgesia in patients with multiple traumatic rib fractures.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was performed. Patients with ≥3 rib fractures following blunt chest trauma who received epidural analgesia between January 2015 and January 2018 were included. The main outcome parameters were the success rate of epidural analgesia and the incidence of medication-related side effects and catheter-related complications.

Results

A total of 76 patients were included. Epidural analgesia was successful in a total of 45 patients (59%), including 22 patients without and in 23 patients with an additional analgesic intervention. In 14 patients (18%), epidural analgesia was terminated early without intervention due to insufficient sensory blockade (n=4), medication-related side effects (n=4), and catheter-related complications (n=6). In 17 patients (22%), the epidural catheter was removed after one or multiple additional interventions due to insufficient pain control. Minor epidural-related complications or side effects were encountered in 36 patients (47%). One patient had a major complication (opioid intoxication).

Conclusion

Epidural analgesia was successful in 59% of patients; however, 30% needed additional analgesic interventions. As about half of the patients had epidural-related complications, it remains debatable whether epidural analgesia is a sufficient treatment modality in patients with multiple rib fractures.

The expedited discharge of patients with multiple traumatic rib fractures is cost-effective

INTRODUCTION

Rib fractures are a cause of significant morbidity and mortality in trauma patients. It is well documented that optimizing pain control, mobilization, and respiratory care decreases complications. However, the impact of these interventions on hospital costs and length of stay is not well defined. We hypothesized patients with multiple rib fractures can be discharged within three hospital days resulting in decreased hospital costs.

METHODS

A retrospective review of adult patients (≥18yrs) admitted to our Level 1 trauma center (2011-2013) with ≥2 rib fractures was performed. Patients were excluded if they were intubated, admitted to the ICU, required chest tube placement, or sustained significant multi-system trauma. (n = 202) Demographics, clinical characteristics, hospital costs, and outcome data were analyzed. Patients discharged within three hospital days of admission were considered to have achieved expedited discharge (ED). Univariate and multivariate analyses determined predictors of failure to achieve ED. A p value of <0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Study patients (n = 202) were 60 (SD = 19) years of age with an injury severity score (ISS) of 10 (SD = 5), and 4 (SD = 2) rib fractures. Of 202 patients, 127 (63%) achieved ED while 75 (37%) did not. No differences in chest AIS, ISS, smoking status or history of pulmonary disease were identified between the two groups (all p > 0.05). Average LOS (2 (SD = 1) vs. 7 (SD = 4) days; p < 0.001) and hospital costs ($2865 (SD = 1200) vs. $6085 (SD = 3033)); p < 0.001). were lower in the ED group A lower percentage of ED patients required placement in rehabilitation facilities (6% vs. 48%; p < 0.001). There were no readmissions within 30 days in either group. After controlling for potential confounding variables, multiple variable logistic regression analysis revealed that advancing age (OR 1.05 per year, 1.02-1.07) independently predicted failure to achieve ED.

CONCLUSION

The majority of patients admitted to the hospital with multiple rib fractures can be discharged within three days. This expedited discharge results in significant cost savings to the hospital. Early identification of patients who cannot meet the goal of expedited discharge can facilitate improvement in management strategies.

Development of a blunt chest injury care bundle: An integrative review

BACKGROUND

Blunt chest injuries (BCI) are associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality. There are many interventions for BCI which may be able to be combined as a care bundle for improved and more consistent outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

To review and integrate the BCI management interventions to inform the development of a BCI care bundle.

METHODS

A structured search of the literature was conducted to identify studies evaluating interventions for patients with BCI. Databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, PubMed and Scopus were searched from 1990-April 2017. A two-step data extraction process was conducted using pre-defined data fields, including research quality indicators. Each study was appraised using a quality assessment tool, scored for level of evidence, then data collated into categories. Interventions were also assessed using the APEASE criteria then integrated to develop a BCI care bundle.

RESULTS

Eighty-one articles were included in the final analysis. Interventions that improved BCI outcomes were grouped into three categories; respiratory intervention, analgesia and surgical intervention. Respiratory interventions included continuous positive airway pressure and high flow nasal oxygen. Analgesia interventions included regular multi-modal analgesia and paravertebral or epidural analgesia. Surgical fixation was supported for use in moderate to severe rib fractures/BCI. Interventions supported by evidence and that met APEASE criteria were combined into a BCI care bundle with four components: respiratory adjuncts, analgesia, complication prevention, and surgical fixation.

CONCLUSIONS

The key components of a BCI care bundle are respiratory support, analgesia, complication prevention including chest physiotherapy and surgical fixation.

Comparison of analgesic interventions for traumatic rib fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose

Many studies report on outcomes of analgesic therapy for (suspected) traumatic rib fractures. However, the literature is inconclusive and diverse regarding the management of pain and its effect on pain relief and associated complications. This systematic review and meta-analysis summarizes and compares reduction of pain for the different treatment modalities and as secondary outcome mortality during hospitalization, length of mechanical ventilation, length of hospital stay, length of intensive care unit stay (ICU) and complications such as respiratory, cardiovascular, and/or analgesia-related complications, for four different types of analgesic therapy: epidural analgesia, intravenous analgesia, paravertebral blocks and intercostal blocks.

Methods

PubMed, EMBASE and CENTRAL databases were searched to identify comparative studies investigating epidural, intravenous, paravertebral and intercostal interventions for traumatic rib fractures, without restriction for study type. The search strategy included keywords and MeSH or Emtree terms relating blunt chest trauma (including rib fractures), analgesic interventions, pain management and complications.

Results

A total of 19 papers met our inclusion criteria and were finally included in this systematic review. Significant differences were found in favor of epidural analgesia for the reduction of pain. No significant differences were observed between epidural analgesia, intravenous analgesia, paravertebral blocks and intercostal blocks, for the secondary outcomes.

Conclusions

Results of this study show that epidural analgesia provides better pain relief than the other modalities. No differences were observed for secondary endpoints like length of ICU stay, length of mechanical ventilation or pulmonary complications. However, the quality of the available evidence is low, and therefore, preclude strong recommendations.

Thoracic Trauma

Management of chest trauma is integral to patient outcomes owing to the vital structures held within the thoracic cavity. Understanding traumatic chest injuries and appropriate management plays a pivotal role in the overall well-being of both blunt and penetrating trauma patients. Whether the injury includes rib fractures, associated pulmonary injuries, or tracheobronchial tree injuries, every facet of management may impact the short- and long-term outcomes, including mortality. This article elucidates the workup and management of the thoracic cage, pulmonary and tracheobronchial injuries.

Management Issues in Critically Ill Pediatric Patients with Trauma

The management of critically ill pediatric patients with trauma poses many challenges because of the infrequency and diversity of severe injuries and a paucity of high-level evidence to guide care for these uncommon events. This article discusses recent recommendations for early resuscitation and blood component therapy for hypovolemic pediatric patients with trauma. It also highlights the specific types of injuries that lead to severe injury in children and presents challenges related to their management.

Guideline-Driven Care Improves Outcomes in Patients with Traumatic Rib Fractures

There is no established national standard for rib fracture management. A clinical practice guideline (CPG) for rib fractures, including monitoring of pulmonary function, early initiation of aggressive loco-regional analgesia, and early identification of deteriorating respiratory function, was implemented in 2013. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of the CPG on hospital length of stay. Hospital length of stay (LOS) was compared for adult patients admitted to the hospital with rib fracture(s) two years before and two years after CPG implementation. A separate analysis was done for the patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). Over the 48-month study period, 571 patients met inclusion criteria for the study. Pre-CPG and CPG study groups were well matched with few differences. Multivariable regression did not demonstrate a difference in LOS (B = -0.838; P = 0.095) in the total study cohort. In the ICU cohort (n = 274), patients in the CPG group were older (57 vs 52 years; P = 0.023) and had more rib fractures (4 vs 3; P = 0.003). Multivariable regression identified a significant decrease in LOS for those patients admitted in the CPG period (B = -2.29; P = 0.019). Despite being significantly older with more rib fractures in the ICU cohort, patients admitted after implementation of the CPG had a significantly reduced LOS on multivariable analysis, reducing LOS by over two days. This structured intervention can limit narcotic usage, improve pulmonary function, and decrease LOS in the most injured patients with chest trauma.

Pain management for blunt thoracic trauma: A joint practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma and Trauma Anesthesiology Society

INTRODUCTION

Thoracic trauma is the second most prevalent nonintentional injury in the United States and is associated with significant morbidity. Analgesia for blunt thoracic trauma was first addressed by the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST) with a practice management guideline published in 2005. Since that time, it was hypothesized that there have been advances in the analgesic management for blunt thoracic trauma. As a result, updated guidelines for this topic using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) framework recently adopted by EAST are presented.

METHODS

Five systematic reviews were conducted using multiple databases. The search retrieved articles regarding analgesia for blunt thoracic trauma from January1967 to August 2015. Critical outcomes of interest were analgesia, postoperative pulmonary complications, changes in pulmonary function tests, need for endotracheal intubation, and mortality. Important outcomes of interest examined included hospital and intensive care unit length of stay.

RESULTS

Seventy articles were identified. Of these, 28 articles were selected to construct the guidelines. The overall risk of bias for all studies was high. The majority of included studies examined epidural analgesia. Epidural analgesia was associated with lower short-term pain scores in most studies, but the quality and quantity of evidence were very low, and no firm evidence of benefit or harm was found when this modality was compared with other analgesic interventions. The quality of evidence for paravertebral block, intrapleural analgesia, multimodal analgesia, and intercostal nerve blocks was very low as assessed by GRADE. The limitations with the available literature precluded the formulation of strong recommendations by our panel.

CONCLUSION

We propose two evidence-based recommendations regarding analgesia for patients with blunt thoracic trauma. The overall risk of bias for all studies was high. The limitations with the available literature precluded the formulation of strong recommendations by our panel. We conditionally recommend epidural analgesia and multimodal analgesia as options for patients with blunt thoracic trauma, but the overall quality of evidence supporting these modalities is low in trauma patients. These recommendations are based on very low-quality evidence but place a high value on patient preferences for analgesia. These recommendations are in contradistinction to the previously published Practice Management Guideline published by EAST.

Chest Wall Trauma

Chest wall trauma is common, and contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality of trauma patients. Early identification of major chest wall and concomitant intrathoracic injuries is critical. Generalized management of multiple rib fractures and flail chest consists of adequate pain control (including locoregional modalities); management of pulmonary dysfunction by invasive and noninvasive means; and, in some cases, surgical fixation. Multiple studies have shown that patients with flail chest have substantial benefit (decreased ventilator and intensive care unit days, improved pulmonary function, and improved long-term functional outcome) when they undergo surgery compared with nonoperative management.

Chest trauma: First 48hours management

Chest trauma remains an issue for health services for both severe and apparently mild trauma management. Severe chest trauma is associated with high mortality and is considered liable for 25% of mortality in multiple traumas. Moreover, mild trauma is also associated with significant morbidity especially in patients with preexisting conditions. Thus, whatever the severity, a fast-acting strategy must be organized. At this time, there are no guidelines available from scientific societies. These expert recommendations aim to establish guidelines for chest trauma management in both prehospital an in hospital settings, for the first 48hours. The "Société française d'anesthésie réanimation" and the "Société française de médecine d'urgence" worked together on the 7 following questions: (1) criteria defining severity and for appropriate hospital referral; (2) diagnosis strategy in both pre- and in-hospital settings; (3) indications and guidelines for ventilatory support; (4) management of analgesia; (5) indications and guidelines for chest tube placement; (6) surgical and endovascular repair indications in blunt chest trauma; (7) definition, medical and surgical specificity of penetrating chest trauma. For each question, prespecified "crucial" (and sometimes also "important") outcomes were identified by the panel of experts because it mattered for patients. We rated evidence across studies for these specific clinical outcomes. After a systematic Grade^® approach, we defined 60 recommendations. Each recommendation has been evaluated by all the experts according to the DELPHI method.

Trauma and critical care III: chest trauma

Patients requiring intensive care for chest trauma are often severely injured and may have suffered trauma elsewhere. The single largest cause of significant blunt chest trauma is road traffic accidents (RTAs). RTAs account for 70-80% of such injuries. Falls and acts of violence are other causative mechanisms. Blast injuries can also result in significant blunt thoracic trauma. Penetrating chest trauma comprises a broad spectrum of injuries and severity. Particular challenges occur in patients with associated polytrauma, as well as those with a combination of blunt and penetrating chest trauma. Chest injury is the most important injury in polytrauma patients with reported incidences of 45-65% and an associated mortality of up to 60%. The treatment of these patients can be prolonged and the initial injury may become of secondary importance to the effects of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, acute lung injury (ALI), nosocomial infection and intercurrent multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Multiply-injured patients with thoracic injuries require significantly longer periods of mechanical ventilation and longer intensive care unit lengths of stay compared with nonthoracic injury trauma patients. The use of a variety of therapeutic interventions may have to be considered during management of the disease process.

Acute Pain Management

Acute pain management is improving steadily over the past few years, but training and professional education are still lacking in many professions. Untreated or undertreated acute pain could have detrimental effects on the patient in terms of comfort and recovery from trauma or surgery. Acute undertreated pain can decrease a patient's vascular perfusion, increase oxygen demand, suppress the immune system, and possibly risk increased incidence of venous thrombosis. Although acute postoperative pain needs to be managed aggressively, patients are most vulnerable during this period for developing adverse effects, and therefore, patient assessment and careful drug therapy evaluation are necessary processes in therapeutic planning. Acute pain management requires careful and thorough initial assessment and follow-up reassessment in addition to frequent dosage adjustments, and managing analgesic induced side effects. Analgesic selection and dosing must be based on the patient's past and recent analgesic exposure. There is no single acute pain management regimen that is suitable for all patients. Analgesics must be tailored to the individual patient.

Epidural Analgesia after Rib Fractures

Pain associated with rib fractures impairs respiratory function and increases pulmonary morbidity. The purpose of this study was to determine how epidural catheters alter mortality and complications in trauma patients. We performed a retrospective study involving adult blunt trauma patients with moderate-to-severe injuries from January 1, 2004 to December 31, 2013. During the 10-year period, 526 patients met the inclusion criteria; 43/526 (8%) patients had a catheter placed. Mean age of patients with epidural catheter (CATH) was higher compared with patients without epidural catheter (NOCATH) (54 vs 48 years, P = 0.021), Injury Severity Score was similar (26 CATH vs 27 NOCATH, P = 0.84), and CATH had higher mean rib fractures (7.4 vs 4.1, P < 0.001). Mortality was lower in CATH (0% vs 13%, P = 0.006). Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) rate was higher in CATH (12% vs. 5%, P = 0.036). After regression analysis, we found catheter placement to be a predictor for DVT (adjusted odds ratios 2.80, P = 0.036). Our center noted increased use of epidural catheters in patients who present with moderate-to-severe injuries. Patients with catheters were older and had a mean of 7.4 ribs fractured. The epidural cohort had longer hospital LOS and decreased mortality. In contrast to other studies, DVT rates were increased in patients who received epidural catheters.

Regional anesthesia for the trauma patient: improving patient outcomes

Trauma is a significant health problem and a leading cause of death in all age groups. Pain related to trauma is frequently severe, but is often undertreated in the trauma population. Opioids are widely used to treat pain in injured patients but have a broad range of undesirable effects in a multitrauma patient such as neurologic and respiratory impairment and delirium. In contrast, regional analgesia confers excellent site-specific pain relief that is free from major side effects, reduces opioid requirement in trauma patients, and is safe and easy to perform. Specific populations that have shown benefits (including morbidity and mortality advantages) with regional analgesic techniques include those with fractured ribs, femur and hip fractures, and patients undergoing digital replantation. Acute compartment syndrome is a potentially devastating sequela of soft-tissue injury that complicates high-energy injuries such as proximal tibia fractures. The use of regional anesthesia in patients at risk for compartment syndrome is controversial; although the data is sparse, there is no evidence that peripheral nerve blocks delay the diagnosis, and these techniques may in fact facilitate the recognition of pathologic breakthrough pain. The benefits of regional analgesia are likely most influential when it is initiated as early as possible, and the performance of nerve blocks both in the emergency room and in the field has been shown to provide quality pain relief with an excellent safety profile.

Epidural analgesia in patients with traumatic rib fractures: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Traumatic rib fractures are a common condition associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Observational studies have suggested improved outcome in patients receiving continuous epidural analgesia (CEA). The aim of the present systematic review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) was to assess the benefit and harm of CEA compared with other analgesic interventions in patients with traumatic rib fractures.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis (TSA). Eligible trials were RCTs comparing CEA with other analgesic interventions in patients with traumatic rib fractures. Cumulative relative risks (RRs) and mean differences (MDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated, and risk of systematic and random errors was assessed. The predefined primary outcome measures were mortality, pneumonia and duration of mechanical ventilation.

RESULTS

A total of six trials (n = 223) were included; all were judged as having a high risk of bias. In the conventional meta-analyses, there was no statistically significant difference in mortality (RR 2.18, 95% CI 0.21-22.42; P = 0.51; I(2)  = 0%), duration of mechanical ventilation (MD -7.53, 95% CI -16.32 to 1.26; P = 0.09; I(2)  = 91%) or pneumonia (RR 0.49, 95% CI 0.19-1.25; P = 0.13; I(2)  = 0%) between CEA and other analgesic interventions. Subgroup analyses and sensitivity analyses, including TSA confirmed the results.

CONCLUSION

The quality and quantity of evidence for the use of CEA in patients with traumatic rib fractures is low, and there is no firm evidence for benefit or harm of CEA compared with other analgesic interventions. Well-powered RCTs with low risk of bias reporting clinically relevant patient-centred outcome measures are needed.

Critical Care for the Patient With Multiple Trauma

Trauma remains the leading cause of death worldwide and the leading cause of death in those less than 44 years old in the United States. Admission to a verified trauma center has been shown to decrease mortality following a major injury. This decrease in mortality has been a direct result of improvements in the initial evaluation and resuscitation from injury as well as continued advances in critical care. As such, it is vital that intensive care practitioners be familiar with various types of injuries and their associated treatment strategies as well as their potential complications in order to minimize the morbidity and mortality frequently seen in this patient population.

Treatments for blunt chest trauma and their impact on patient outcomes and health service delivery

Blunt chest trauma is associated with a high risk of morbidity and mortality. Complications in blunt chest trauma develop secondary to rib fractures as a consequence of pain and inadequate ventilation. This literature review aimed to examine clinical interventions in rib fractures and their impact on patient and hospital outcomes. A systematic search strategy, using a structured clinical question and defined search terms, was performed in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library. The search was limited to studies of adult humans from 1990-March 2014 and yielded 977 articles, which were screened against inclusion/exclusion criteria. A hand search was then performed of the articles that met the eligibility criteria, 40 articles were included in this review. Each article was assessed using a quantitative critiquing guideline. From these articles, interventions were categorised into four main groups: analgesia, surgical fixation, clinical protocols and other interventions. Surgical fixation was effective in patients with flail chest at improving patient outcomes. Epidural analgesia, compared to both patient controlled analgesia and intravenous narcotics in patients with three or more rib fractures improved both hospital and patient outcomes, including pain relief and pulmonary function. Clinical pathways improve outcomes in patients ≥ 65 with rib fractures. The majority of reviewed papers recommended a multi-disciplinary approach including allied health (chest physiotherapy and nutritionist input), nursing, medical (analgesic review) and surgical intervention (stabilisation of flail chest). However there was a paucity of evidence describing methods to implement and evaluate such multidisciplinary interventions. Isolated interventions can be effective in improving patient and health service outcomes for patients with blunt chest injuries, however the literature recommends implementing strategies such as clinical pathways to improve the care and outcomes of thesetre patients. The implementation of evidence-practice interventions in this area is scarce, and evaluation of interventions scarcer still.

Effect of Panax notoginseng in patients with multiple fractured ribs and pulmonary contusions caused by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the combination of conventional treatment and Panax notoginseng (PN group) is superior to conventional treatment alone (CG group) in reducing the clinical symptoms of patients with multiple fractured ribs and pulmonary contusions.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the medical records of patients treated for multiple fractured ribs and pulmonary contusions with either conventional treatment (n = 17) or P. notoginseng (n = 18). Visual analog scale (VAS) pain scores and arterial oxygen saturation were measured at baseline and at 1 and 2 weeks following treatment. The duration of mechanical ventilation, systemic analgesics, and hospital stay were also recorded.

RESULTS

VAS scores in the PN group were lower than in the CG group at 1 week (p < 0.01) and at 2 weeks (p < 0.05). Arterial oxygen saturation in both groups was higher after treatment than at baseline (p < 0.05), but there was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups (p > 0.05). The duration of mechanical ventilation, systemic analgesics administration, and hospital stay in the PN group was remarkably decreased as compared to the CG group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Combining conventional treatment and P. notoginseng seems to be an efficient method that can improve the clinical symptoms of multiple fractured ribs and pulmonary contusions.

Article Commentary: Contemporary Management of Flail Chest

Thoracic injury is currently the second leading cause of trauma-related death and rib fractures are the most common of these injuries. Flail chest, as defined by fracture of three or more ribs in two or more places, continues to be a clinically challenging problem. The underlying pulmonary contusion with subsequent inflammatory reaction and right-to-left shunting leading to hypoxia continues to result in high mortality for these patients. Surgical stabilization of the fractured ribs remains controversial. We review the history of management for flail chest alone and when combined with pulmonary contusion. Finally, we propose an algorithm for nonoperative and surgical management.

Pain in Intensive Care: A Personalised Healthcare Approach

For patients admitted to intensive care, pain is a common experience with potentially significant consequences. Pain management needs to evolve from the traditional ‘one-size-fits-all’ plan to a more personalised approach. This can be achieved by appreciating the numerous potential causes of pain, using appropriate assessment tools, utilising a range of potential treatment options and addressing the challenges associated with pain management in this heterogeneous population. At this point a truly multimodal, multidisciplinary management plan can be implemented, aimed at improving pain control and ultimately patient outcomes.

Regional anesthesia outside the operating room: indications and techniques

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Regional anesthesia is not only performed in the operating room. There are indications for the use of these techniques for pain relief in the emergency department and for anesthesia support of procedures outside the operating room. In this review, we will provide an overview of the indications for the regional techniques performed in the out-of-operating room environment.

RECENT FINDINGS

In the emergency department, patients may experience significant pain, and adequate analgesia is not always provided. Regional analgesia is effective and indicated for many trauma situations including hip fracture, reduction of shoulder dislocation, treatment of upper limb fractures and multiple rib fractures.Ultrasound guidance makes the performance of regional blocks more accessible and safer for use in the emergency department setting.For therapeutic procedures outside the operating room, regional anesthesia is possible for uterine artery embolization and for postoperative analgesia after implantation of cervical brachytherapy needles.

SUMMARY

Regional anesthesia is a valuable option for analgesia in trauma patients, enabling improved pain control in the emergency department and has benefits in the anesthetic management of therapeutic procedures outside the operating room. For many blocks, ultrasound guidance is useful.

Epidural analgesia for blunt thoracic injury--which patients benefit most?

INTRODUCTION

Epidural analgesia for blunt thoracic injury has been demonstrated to be beneficial for pulmonary function, analgesia, and subjective pain; however the optimal patient selection and timing of thoracic epidural placement have not been well studied. We hypothesised that early (<48h) epidural analgesia (EA) as compared with usual care involving oral and intravenous narcotics delivered by patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) in patients with blunt thoracic trauma (>3 ribs fractured) is associated with fewer pulmonary complications and lower resource utilisation as measured by ICU and hospital length of stay.

METHODS

This is a retrospective review of all non-intubated patients suffering from blunt thoracic injury with 3 or more rib fractures requiring hospital admission for >24h over a recent 5-year period. Pulmonary complications were defined as pneumonia, empyema, hypoxia, and need for delayed intubation. Logistic regression was utilised to analyse patient and injury characteristics associated with pulmonary complications.

RESULTS

187 patients were included in the analysis; early thoracic epidural was utilised in 18% (n=34). There was no difference in age, ISS, ICU length of stay (LOS), or pulmonary complications between patients who received an epidural (EPI) compared with those who did not (NO EPI). A significantly increased incidence of pulmonary complications was noted in patients who required tube thoracostomy (p=0.017).

CONCLUSION

In our experience, insertion of a thoracic epidural catheter early post-injury failed to reduce the incidence of pulmonary complications, ICU and hospital LOS. However, since pulmonary complications are more frequent in patients requiring tube thoracostomy, the cost-effectiveness of epidural analgesia in these patients warrants further investigation.

Comparison between lumbar and thoracic epidural morphine for severe isolated blunt chest wall trauma: a randomized open-label trial

PURPOSE

The aim of this randomized, parallel-arm, open-label trial was to compare lumbar versus thoracic epidural morphine for severe isolated blunt chest wall injury as regards the incidence of pulmonary complications and pain control.

METHODS

Fifty-five patients who sustained severe isolated blunt chest wall trauma were randomized using a computer-generated list to receive epidural morphine injection every 24 h through an epidural catheter inserted into the lumbar (n = 28) or thoracic (n = 27) region. Need for mechanical ventilation, incidence of pneumonia, arterial blood gas values, and pulmonary function tests were compared in both groups. Pain scores, supplemental analgesic consumption, length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay, and occurrence of epidural morphine-related side effects were compared as well. Primary outcome measures were need for mechanical ventilation and incidence of pneumonia.

RESULTS

Five (17.9 %) patients in the lumbar group were mechanically ventilated, compared with six (22.2 %) in the thoracic group (hazard ratio 1.35; 95 % CI 0.41-4.4; P = 0.611). Seven (25 %) patients in the lumbar group developed pneumonia versus six (22.2 %) in the thoracic group (hazard ratio 0.97; 95 % CI 0.33-2.9; P = 0.96). Both groups were comparable as regards the duration of mechanical ventilation (P = 0.141) and length of ICU stay (P = 0.227). Pain scores, supplemental analgesic consumption, pulmonary function, and occurrence of epidural morphine-related side effects were, likewise, comparable (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Lumbar and thoracic epidural morphine administered as once-daily injection to patients with severe isolated blunt chest wall trauma were comparable in terms of pain control, incidence of pulmonary complications, and occurrence of epidural morphine-related side effects.