Phase II trial of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in early-stage small cell cervical cancer

Innovations in Rare Gynecologic Cancer: Melanoma, Neuroendocrine, and Low-Grade Serous Ovarian

In the field of gynecologic cancer, low-grade serous ovarian cancer (LGSOC) has been poorly understood and underinvestigated until recently. Similarly, understanding of the distinct properties and therapeutic sensitivities of gynecologic melanoma and cervical neuroendocrine tumors has recently accelerated. For each of these rare cancers, we explore the epidemiology and natural history, discuss the prognosis, diagnostic testing, and contemporary molecular classification, and then deliberate existing and emerging therapeutic strategies. In LGSOC, we focus on the clinical relevance of recent molecular studies that shed light on the importance of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway gene mutation and chromosome 1 copy-number change on prognosis and MEK inhibitor sensitivity. We also discuss the relative chemoresistance of this disease and the fact that attention is shifting to combinations of molecular therapies such as endocrine agents plus cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors or MEK inhibitors plus FAK inhibitors. Gynecologic tract melanomas harbor a lower frequency of canonical BRAF mutations, and have lower tumor mutational burden and immune cell infiltration than cutaneous melanomas (CMs). As a result, patients with this disease are less likely to respond to BRAF/MEK or immune checkpoint inhibition than patients with CM. Emerging strategies include the combination of antiangiogenic agents with immune checkpoint inhibitors and the use of adoptive cellular therapies. In cervical neuroendocrine cancer, we discuss the use of surgery in early-stage disease, and the uncertainties regarding the role of radiotherapy. We also explore the evidence for chemotherapy and emerging investigational strategies including the use of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors. For all situations, we explore the shared decision-making process with the patient.

Prognostic factors and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors of the uterine cervix based on the FIGO 2018 staging system: a single-institution study of 172 patients

Objective

This study aimed to explore the prognostic factors and outcomes of patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) of the cervix and to determine appropriate treatment.

Methods

A single-institution retrospective analysis of 172 patients with NETs was performed based on the new International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO 2018) staging system.

Results

Among the 172 eligible patients, 161 were diagnosed with small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (SCNEC), six with large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, four with typical carcinoid tumors and one with SCNEC combined with an atypical carcinoid tumor. According to the FIGO 2018 staging guidelines, 31 were stage I, 66 were stage II, 57 were stage III, and 18 were stage IV. The 5-year survival rates of patients with stage I–IV disease were 74.8%, 56.2%, 41.4% and 0%, respectively. The 5-year progression-free survival rates of patients with stage I–IV disease were 63.8%, 54.5%, 30.8% and 0%, respectively. In the multivariate analysis, advanced FIGO stage, large tumor and older age were identified as independent variables for 5-year survival in patients with stage I–IV disease. FIGO stage, tumor size and para-aortic lymph node metastasis were independent prognostic factors for 5-year progression-free survival in patients with stage I–IV disease. For the patients receiving surgery (n = 108), tumor size and pelvic lymph node metastasis were independent prognostic factors for 5-year survival, and pelvic lymph node metastasis for 5-year progression-free survival. In stage IVB, at least six cycles of chemotherapy (n = 7) was associated with significantly better 2-year OS (83.3% vs. 9.1%, p < 0.001) and 2-year PFS (57.1% vs. 0%, p = 0.01) than fewer than six cycles of chemotherapy(n = 11).

Conclusion

Advanced FIGO stage, large tumor, older age and lymph node metastasis are independent prognostic factors for NETs of the cervix. The TP/TC and EP regimens were the most commonly used regimens, with similar efficacies and toxicities. Standardized and complete multimodality treatment may improve the survival of patients with NETs.

The puzzle of gynecologic neuroendocrine carcinomas: State of the art and future directions

Primary gynecologic neuroendocrine carcinomas (gNECs) are a heterogeneous spectrum of rare and highly aggressive neoplasms, accounting for about 2% of all gynecologic malignancies, which mostly resemble the small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). Due to the lack of standardized treatment guidelines, their management poses a noteworthy clinical challenge. Currently, cumulative data retrieved from the management of SCLC and from retrospective studies supports a multimodality strategy, based on surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Nevertheless, the prognosis remains poor and recurrences are extremely frequent. Hence, there is an urgent need for novel treatment options and promising molecular targets. Recently, there has been an increasing interest on the potential role of immune checkpoint inhibitors, especially in the recurrent setting. However, only scant evidence exists and there is still a long road ahead. A solid collaboration between gynecologists and oncologists worldwide is required to improve the treatment of these puzzling tumors.

Multimodal Management of Locally Advanced Neuroendocrine Cervical Carcinoma: A Single Institution Experience

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to report our institutional experience of a multimodal approach for treatment of locally advanced high-grade neuroendocrine cervical cancer.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Patients with primary locally advanced neuroendocrine cervical cancer diagnosed between 2001 and 2014 were included. The scheduled treatment sequence was as follows: pelvic +/- para-aortic radiotherapy (according to tumor stage), associated with chemotherapy based on platine-derivate and etoposide regimen, followed with a brachytherapy boost, then completion surgery if there was no progression +/- consolidation etoposide chemotherapy (for a total of 5-6 cycles). Disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) were reported and prognostic factors were searched.

RESULTS

A total of 24 patients fulfilled inclusion criteria. Median age was 48 (range 22-77 years). Fourteen patients (58%) had pelvic lymph node metastases. After chemoradiation/brachytherapy, a radical hysterectomy could be performed in 18 of 24 patients (75%). Histologically complete resection was achieved in 14 (78%) of 18 patients. Complete pathological response was reported in 7 (39%) of 18. With median follow-up of 29.7 months, 10 (42%) of 24 patients experienced tumor relapse, all associated with distant failure, including one local failure. The DFS and OS rates estimated at 3 years were 55% and 63%, respectively. Lymph node metastases and tumor stage were prognostic for DFS (P = 0.016 and P = 0.022, respectively). Complete resection was associated with a lower incidence of relapses, as compared with microscopically incomplete resection (P = 0.04). A total of 12 (86%) of 14 patients with histologically complete resection were in complete remission at last follow-up. Apart from manageable acute hematological toxicities, most treatment complications were mild to moderate.

CONCLUSIONS

This series based on a multimodal management compares favorably with previously published data. Most patients could be eligible to surgery, and complete remission was achieved in 85% of those amenable to complete resection.

Prognostic factors and optimal therapy for stages I-II neuroendocrine carcinomas of the uterine cervix: A multi-center retrospective study

PURPOSE

We aimed to determine appropriate treatment guidelines for patients with stages I-II high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas (HGNEC) of the uterine cervix in a multicenter retrospective study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We reviewed the clinicopathological features and prognoses of 93 patients with HGNEC of International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stages I and II. All patients were diagnosed with HGNEC by central pathological review.

RESULTS

The median overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were 111.3months and 47.4months, respectively. Eighty-eight patients underwent radical surgery, and five had definitive radiotherapy. The hazard ratio (HR) for death after definitive radiotherapy to death after radical surgery was 4.74 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-15.90). Of the surgery group, 18 received neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Pathological prognostic factors and optimal adjuvant therapies were evaluated for the 70 patients. Forty-one patients received adjuvant chemotherapy with etoposide-platinum (EP) or irinotecan-platinum (CPT-P). Multivariate analyses identified the invasion of lymphovascular spaces as a significant prognostic factor for both OS and DFS. Pelvic lymph node metastasis was also a prognostic factor for DFS. Adjuvant chemotherapy with an EP or CPT-P regimen appeared to improve DFS (HR=0.27, 95% CI, 0.10-0.69). A trend toward improved OS was also observed, but was not statistically significant (HR=0.39, 95% CI, 0.15-1.01).

CONCLUSION

Radical surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy with an EP or CPT-P regimen was optimal treatment for stages I and II HGNEC of the uterine cervix.

Agreement Between Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Pathologic Findings in the Tumor Size Evaluation Before and After Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy Treatment: A Prospective Study

Objectives

To compare the agreement between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results and postsurgical pathologic findings for tumor size evaluation in cervical cancer patients before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) treatment.

Methods

The study analyzed the agreement between pretreatment MRI results and postsurgical pathologic findings about the tumor size in 100 cervical cancer patients without NACT and 397 cervical cancer patients with NACT, respectively.

Results

In general, the agreement between pretreatment MRI results and postsurgical pathologic findings of tumor size was 0.855 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.763–0.909) in cervical cancer patients without NACT, whereas the agreement between posttreatment MRI results and postsurgical pathologic findings was 0.503 (95% CI, 0.421–0.576). Only 62.72% (249/397) of patients who underwent NACT treatment have the same chemotherapy response evaluation results; the κ coefficient was 0.384(95% CI, 0.310–0.457) between posttreatment MRI and postsurgical pathologic findings. We still found International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage is associated with the chemotherapy response evaluation.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that pretreatment MRI can be a surrogate indicator for postsurgical pathologic findings. However, posttreatment MRI could not be a surrogate indicator for postsurgical pathologic findings. The chemotherapy response evaluation based on only MRI is not so reliable. More indicators should be developed for chemotherapy response evaluation.

Brachytherapy should not be omitted when treating locally advanced neuroendocrine cervical cancer with definitive chemoradiation therapy

PURPOSE

Neuroendocrine cervical cancer is a rare malignancy with a poor prognosis, yet there is a paucity of data to guide treatment decisions when managing patients with this diagnosis. Specifically, there are little data to aid practitioners in deciding if there is added value to brachytherapy given the additional time, cost, discomfort, and toxicity to patients.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We used the National Cancer Data Base to identify women with locally advanced neuroendocrine cervical cancer treated with definitive chemoradiotherapy to determine if the addition of brachytherapy improves outcomes in this disease. We also assessed outcomes based on chemotherapy timing in this cohort.

RESULTS

We identified 100 patients with locally advanced nonmetastatic neuroendocrine cervical cancer that were treated with definitive chemoradiotherapy between 2004 and 2012. There was a substantial improvement in overall survival when brachytherapy was administered in addition to external beam radiotherapy. In multivariate analysis, the addition of brachytherapy, compared with external beam radiotherapy alone, was associated with an improved median survival of 48.6 vs. 21.6 months (hazard ratio (HR), 0.475; 95% CI, 0.255-0.883; p = 0.019). We observed no difference in overall survival for patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy compared with the group who received chemotherapy started concurrently with radiation (HR, 0.851; 95% CI, 0.483-1.500; p = 0.578).

CONCLUSIONS

Brachytherapy should be considered an essential component of definitive chemoradiotherapy for the treatment of neuroendocrine cervical cancer. Chemotherapy timing, however, does not impact outcome.

Patterns of recurrence and survival in neuroendocrine cervical cancer

OBJECTIVE

To analyze patterns of recurrence and survival and identify prognostic factors in women with neuroendocrine cervical cancer (NECC).

METHODS

We reviewed patients with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage I-IVA NECC who were enrolled in the Neuroendocrine Cervical Tumor Registry and treated with curative intent. Event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) according to disease and treatment characteristics were analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

Among 40 patients with NECC, 25 (62%) had small cell NECC, eight (20%) had large cell NECC, and seven (18%) had unspecified neuroendocrine histology. With a median follow-up of 21.5months, 32 patients (80%) experienced progression, and 28 (70%) died. For all patients, the 5-year EFS rate was 20%, and the 5-year OS rate was 27%. Patients with large cell NECC had significantly better median EFS (median not reached vs. 10.0months, p=0.02) and showed a trend toward better median OS (153months vs. 21months, p=0.08) than patients with other histologic types. In patients with early-stage clinically node-negative disease, chemoradiation was associated with significantly better median EFS than surgery (median not reached vs. 18.0months, p=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with large cell NECC have better outcomes than patients with other subtypes of NECC. In early-stage node-negative NECC, chemoradiation yields better EFS than surgery. Most patients with NECC, even those with no evidence of nodal disease at diagnosis, rapidly develop widespread hematogenous metastases and die of their disease.

Natural history and outcome of neuroendocrine carcinoma of the cervix

OBJECTIVE

Neuroendocrine carcinomas of the cervix (NECC) are rare and thought to be aggressive. We performed a population-based analysis to examine the natural history, treatment patterns and outcomes of women with NECC compared to squamous cell carcinoma (SCCC) and adenocarcinoma (AC) of the cervix.

METHODS

The National Cancer Database (NCDB) was utilized to identify women with NECC, SCCC, and AC treated from 1998 to 2011. Clinical, demographic, and treatment characteristics were compared between the groups. The association between tumor histology and survival was examined using Kaplan-Meier analyses and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models.

RESULTS

We identified 127,332 patients, including 1,896 (1.5%) with NECC and 101,240 (79.5%) with SCCC and 24,196 (19.0%) with AC. Patients with NECC were younger, more often white, commercially insured, and diagnosed with metastatic disease at presentation compared to women with SCCC. Patients with early-stage NECC were more likely to receive adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation after surgery (P<0.05 for both). In multivariable models stratified by stage and adjusted for clinical and demographic characteristics, the risk of death was higher for patients with NECC compared to SCCC for all stages of disease: stages IB-IIA (HR=2.96; 95% CI, 2.48-3.52), stages IIB-IVA (HR=1.70; 95% CI, 1.45-1.99) and stage IVB (HR=1.14; 95% CI, 0.91-1.43).

CONCLUSION

NECC are aggressive tumors associated with an increased risk of death. Survival is inferior for NECC compared to squamous cell tumors for women with both early and advanced stage disease.

Prognostic risk factors for small cell carcinoma of the cervix and impact of platinum-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate prognostic risk factors and the effects of platinum-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) among patients with small cell carcinoma of the cervix (SCCC).

METHODS

In a retrospective multicenter study, data were analyzed from patients with SCCC diagnosed between July 2001 and October 2009 at one of three hospitals in China. Prognostic risk factors were identified by the Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

Follow-up information was available for 22 patients, including 18 cases of early (FIGO stage IA-IIA) and four cases of advanced (stage IIB-IV) SCCC. The 3-year disease-free survival (DFS) rate was 62% for patients with early stage disease and 0% for those at a late stage (P=0.003). The 3-year overall survival (OS) rate was 68% and 0%, respectively (P=0.001). The 3-year OS rate was 73% for patients with no lymphovascular space invasion and 0% for those with lymphovascular space invasion (P=0.031). Advanced FIGO stage was the only independent risk factor for 3-year DFS (P=0.017) and 3-year OS (P=0.006). Patients who received NACT plus radical surgery had a lower rate of distant recurrence than did patients who received radical surgery as the primary treatment (0/8 vs 5/9; P=0.029).

CONCLUSION

Advanced disease was an independent risk factor for SCCC prognosis. Platinum-based NACT seemed to prevent distant recurrence.

Small cell carcinoma of the gynecologic tract: a multifaceted spectrum of lesions

OBJECTIVE

Small cell carcinoma (SmCC) of the female genital tract constitutes a diagnostic and clinical challenge given its rarity and the lack of standardized therapeutic approaches. Here we review the morphological, clinical and molecular features of gynecologic SmCCs and discuss potential areas for future research.

METHODS

Data for this review article were identified by searches of PubMed, EMBASE and the Internet using the search terms "small cell carcinoma" or "neuroendocrine carcinoma" and "gynecologic", "uterine cervix", "cervix", "uterus", "endometrium", "ovary", "vagina", "fallopian tube" or "vulva", and research articles published in English between 1972 and February 2014 were included.

RESULTS

SmCCs arising from different organs within the gynecologic tract share the same histopathologic characteristics, which closely resemble those of small cell lung carcinoma. The expression of at least one immunohistochemical neuroendocrine marker is a common finding. The uterine cervix is the most frequent site of SmCC in the female genital tract. HPV infection seems to play a role in the development of cervical SmCC but not in cancers of other gynecologic sites. FIGO stage is an established prognostic factor, in particular in SCCs of the cervix. Irrespective of the site, SmCCs of the gynecologic tract display an aggressive clinical behavior with few reported long-term survivors. The therapeutic management includes surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the potential differences in etiology and risk factors, SmCCs from different sites of the gynecologic tract have similar morphologic appearances and clinical behavior. Recent genomic analyses of small cell carcinoma of the lung have revealed potential driver genomic alterations. We posit that the comprehensive genomic characterization of gynecologic SmCCs may lead to the identification of markers that result in an improvement of diagnostic reproducibility of SmCCs of the gynecologic tract, and of molecular aberrations that may be exploited therapeutically in subgroups of the disease.

Prognostic factors and treatment comparison in early-stage small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix

Small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix (SCCUC) is rare and its biologic behavior is aggressive. To analyze prognostic factors and determine optimal therapy in patients with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage IB1-IIA SCCUC, we retrospectively reviewed 96 patients (14 patients treated in our center and 82 patients identified by a search on PubMed) treated with radical surgery (SU), surgery plus adjuvant chemotherapy (SU+Chemo), or surgery plus adjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy (SU+Chemo+RT) between 1990 and 2010. Of the 96 patients, 11 patients were treated with SU, 33 with SU+Chemo, and 52 with SU+Chemo+RT. The 5-year survival rate for the 96 patients was 45%. A total of 6% (2/32) of patients had local recurrence, 75% (24/32) had distant metastases, and 19% (6/32) had both. The 5-year survival rate in stage IB1 and IB2-IIA disease was 58 and 34%, respectively (P=0.049). For patients with and without lymph node metastases (LNM), survival was 33 and 60%, respectively (P=0.045). Patients with inner 1/3 stromal invasion had a better survival than those with deep stromal invasion (DSI) (100 vs. 34%, P=0.003). Survival was not significantly different in patients treated with the above three modalities, albeit treatment selection was related to LNM (P=0.000) and DSI (P=0.027). Thus, FIGO stage, LNM and DSI are significant predictors of survival. Adjuvant therapy after SU has not improved survival compared with surgery alone. Thus, newer multimodality therapy should be evaluated.

Neuroendocrine tumors of the gynecologic tract: A Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) clinical document

OBJECTIVE

Neuroendocrine tumors of the gynecologic tract are rare, and pose a significant clinical challenge because of the tumor heterogeneity and lack of standardized guidelines for treatment. This manuscript summarizes the available literature concerning these tumors in an effort to provide the clinician a framework from which to guide patient management.

METHODS

MEDLINE was searched for all research articles published in English between January 1, 1966 and March 1, 2011 in which the studied population included women diagnosed with neuroendocrine tumors of the gynecologic tract. Although preference was given to prospective studies, studies were not limited by design or by numbers of subjects given the limited availability of reports.

RESULTS

Most, but not all, neuroendocrine tumors of the gynecologic tract have an aggressive clinical course and those of the cervix histologically and clinically share similarities with small cell lung cancer. Cumulative data supports a multi-modality therapeutic strategy. A proposed management algorithm for neuroendocrine carcinomas of the cervix is outlined. For less frequent disease sites including the adnexa, uterus, vagina and vulva, as well as well differentiated carcinoid tumors, surgical resection is appropriate in selected cases. Etoposide/platinum based chemotherapy is used for neuroendocrine carcinomas but not for well differentiated carcinoid tumors. Well differentiated carcinoid and atypical carcinoid tumors should be managed similar to gastroenteropancreatic NETs (GEP-NETs).

CONCLUSIONS

Most neuroendocrine tumors of the gynecologic tract require a multi-modality therapeutic approach, determined by extent of disease and primary organ of involvement. Pathologic diagnosis is critical to guide therapy.

Neuroendocrine small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix: what disease? What treatment? Report of ten cases and a review of the literature

Neuroendocrine small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix (NESCCC) is an entity with very aggressive behaviour. The optimal initial therapeutic approach to this rare disease has not yet been clearly defined. We reviewed our experience of this disease over the past 10 years with regard to chemosensitivity. Since 1988, ten patients (mean age 33 years; range 24-47) have been diagnosed with NESCCC and treated in our institutions. Disease stage at presentation was IA (one), IB (five, two with lymph node involvement), IIB (one), IIIB (one), and IV (two). One patient had metastatic disease at presentation; three developed metastases during initial treatment. Eight patients underwent surgery and eight received radiation therapy. Six patients received pre- or postoperative cisplatinumvepeside (PE) combination chemotherapy, either alone or concurrently with radiation therapy. PE alone as primary chemotherapy led to disease stabilization in the two patients so treated; concurrent PE and radiation therapy resulted in a pathological complete response in one patient. Eight patients relapsed within 16 months and died of their disease within 29 months from the initial diagnosis. Two patients are alive with no evidence of disease at 13 and 53 months. Our series confirms the previously described very poor prognosis of NESCCC, despite initial aggressive multidisciplinary treatment. It may be that the introduction of chemotherapy, especially combined primary chemoradiotherapy, might allow patients to do a little better, although at the moment there is no good evidence one way or the other.