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Understanding Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis: Beyond Allergic Mechanisms. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11101012. [PMID: 34685384 PMCID: PMC8541022 DOI: 10.3390/life11101012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC) is a chronic, recurrent, inflammatory disease of the cornea and conjunctiva mostly affecting boys in prepubertal age. VKC recurrence is characterized by intense symptoms of itching, redness, and photophobia associated with corneal damage, impairment of visual function, and quality of life. The pathogenesis of VKC has not yet been completely understood, and it is still controversial. In fact, VKC is considered an ocular allergic disease due to the involvement of immunoglobulin E, eosinophils, and mast cells, and of a lymphocyte T-helper type 2 reaction. However, approximately half of VKC patients have negative allergological history and testing, suggesting that other pathogenic mechanisms participate in VKC development and severity. Specifically, evidence suggests that genetic, endocrine, neuronal factors and an imbalance of innate immunity are involved in the pathogenesis of VKC. The purpose of this review is to summarize evidence on the pathogenic role of innate immunity, neuroimmune reaction, and hormonal changes in VKC. Increasing understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms behind VKC may lead to the identification of novel biomarkers for diagnosis and/or potential therapeutic targets in order to improve the management of this challenging condition.
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Giant papillary conjunctivitis: A review. Ocul Surf 2020; 18:396-402. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2020.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Sacchetti M, Bruscolini A, Abicca I, Nebbioso M, La Cava M, Bonini S, Lambiase A. Current and emerging treatment options for vernal keratoconjunctivitis. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/21678707.2017.1300524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Sacchetti
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Alice Bruscolini
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Irene Abicca
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marcella Nebbioso
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio La Cava
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Bonini
- Ophthalmology, Campus Bio-Medico University, Rome, Italy
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Lipoxin A 4 Counter-regulates Histamine-stimulated Glycoconjugate Secretion in Conjunctival Goblet Cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36124. [PMID: 27824117 PMCID: PMC5099697 DOI: 10.1038/srep36124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Conjunctival goblet cells synthesize and secrete mucins which play an important role in protecting the ocular surface. Pro-resolution mediators, such as lipoxin A4 (LXA4), are produced during inflammation returning the tissue to homeostasis and are also produced in non-inflamed tissues. The purpose of this study was to determine the actions of LXA4 on cultured human conjunctival goblet cell mucin secretion and increase in intracellular [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]i) and on histamine-stimulated responses. LXA4 increased mucin secretion and [Ca2+]i, and activated ERK1/2 in human goblet cells. Addition of LXA4 before resolvin D1 (RvD1) decreased RvD1 responses though RvD1 did not block LXA4 responses. LXA4 inhibited histamine-stimulated increases in mucin secretion, [Ca2+]i, and ERK1/2 activation through activation of β-adrenergic receptor kinase 1. We conclude that conjunctival goblet cells respond to LXA4 through the ALX/FPR2 receptor to maintain homeostasis of the ocular surface and regulate histamine responses and could provide a new therapeutic approach for allergic conjunctivitis and dry eye diseases.
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Ebihara N, Funaki T, Murakami A, Takai S, Miyazaki M. Mast Cell Chymase Decreases the Barrier Function and Inhibits the Migration of Corneal Epithelial Cells. Curr Eye Res 2009; 30:1061-9. [PMID: 16354619 DOI: 10.1080/02713680500346625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We investigated the in vitro effects of human mast cell chymase on corneal epithelial cells. METHODS Human corneal epithelial cells were incubated with human chymase at activity levels that were likely to exist in the tears of patients with vernal keratoconjunctivitis. RESULTS Incubation of chymase resulted in a decrease of barrier function of corneal epithelium. Occludin protein was cleaved by chymase. In the wound assay, incubation with chymase resulted in an inhibition of cell migration. CONCLUSION Human chymase causes the proteolysis of occludin and fibronectin, resulting in a decrease of barrier function and inhibition of the migration of corneal epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Ebihara
- Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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Abstract
Vernal conjunctivitis is a bilateral, seasonal, external ocular inflammatory disease of unknown cause. Afflicted patients experience intense itching, tearing, photophobia, and mucous discharge, and usually demonstrate large cobblestone papillae on their superior tarsal conjunctiva and limbal conjunctiva. It primarily affects children, may be related to atopy, and has environmental and racial predilections. Although usually self-limited, vernal conjunctivitis can result in potentially blinding corneal complications. Treatment of chronic forms of ocular allergies may necessitate collaborative efforts between the ophthalmologist and the allergist or immunologist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Jun
- Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Bielory L. Differential diagnoses of conjunctivitis for clinical allergist-immunologists. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007; 98:105-14; quiz 114-7, 152. [PMID: 17304876 DOI: 10.1016/s1081-1206(10)60681-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To provide a clinical overview of the types of conjunctivitis that are encountered by practicing clinical allergist-immunologists. DATA SOURCES Published literature in peer reviewed journals found in the National Library of Medicine (PubMed) database using the keywords ocular allergy and/or allergic conjunctivitis. STUDY SELECTION Studies related to ocular allergy and/or allergic conjunctivitis were selected for inclusion in this review. RESULTS Four clinical scenarios are presented that mimic frequently encountered inflammatory disorders that present as red eyes. CONCLUSIONS The signs and symptoms associated with the various inflammatory conditions affecting the conjunctiva often overlap and need to be differentiated to maximize care for patients with conjunctivitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Bielory
- Department of Medicine, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, USA.
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Leonardi A. The central role of conjunctival mast cells in the pathogenesis of ocular allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2002; 2:325-31. [PMID: 12044269 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-002-0061-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Ocular allergic diseases are characterized by specific activation of conjunctival mast cells with subsequent release of preformed and newly formed mediators. Mast-cell numbers on the ocular surface are increased in all forms of allergic conjunctivitis. Mast-cell activation plays a central role in the development of the ocular allergic reaction, which can be divided into an early and a late inflammatory phase. Mast-cell mediators have been measured in tears of patients suffering from various forms of allergic conjunctivitis, and in sensitized patients after specific ocular allergen challenge. Histamine and tryptase are the most studied mediators in tears of allergic patients. Several cytokines, such as IL-4 and TNF-a, are also produced and released by conjunctival mast cells, and probably play a role in the immunoregulation on the ocular surface. In vitro studies of the characteristics and biologic functions of conjunctival mast cells highlight their central role in the pathogenesis of ocular allergy, and have led to new opportunities to evaluate anti-allergic compounds. This review discusses the role of conjunctival mast cells in the development of ocular allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Leonardi
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Padova, via Foscari 8, 35127 Padova, Italy
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Fujihara T, Takeuchi T, Saito K, Kitajima Y, Kobayashi TK, Tsubota K. Evaluation of human conjunctival epithelium by a combination of brush cytology and flow cytometry: an approach to the quantitative technique. Diagn Cytopathol 1997; 17:456-60. [PMID: 9407208 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0339(199712)17:6<456::aid-dc15>3.0.co;2-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cytology using the brush technique is readily available and is a rapid means of establishing a presumptive diagnosis of ocular surface changes. However, those techniques have some limitations when obtaining cells from certain localized areas particularly if using the Cytobrush-S. We have described here a new type of brush (Accellon-M), which can collect the local cells using its spherical tip, and evaluated them by comparing with Cytobrush-S. Furthermore, we differentiated epithelial cells from nonepithelial cells that were collected by brushing, and by a combination of brush cytology and flow cytometry using an anti-keratin antibody, AE-3, which reacts with all basic epithelial keratins. Accellon-M could collect the epithelial cells from conjunctiva as effectively as with the Cytobrush-S, and there were no statistical differences between both groups. AE-3, which is reported as the marker of epithelial cells, were detected quantitatively by a combination of brush cytology and flow cytometry techniques. The result of the present study emphasizes that both the Cytobrush-S and the Accellon-M are valuable for conjunctival brush cytology. An additional positive feature of the Accellon-M may be improved cell collection from the conjunctival epithelium especially when the target cells are in a limited area. The combination of the brush cytology and the flow cytometry technique appears to be a useful adjunct as an additional diagnostic or research tool for use in the detection of various antigens in the conjunctival epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fujihara
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ichikawa General Hospital, Tokyo Dental College, Chiba, Japan
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Bonini S, Schiavone M, Bonini S, Magrini L, Lischetti P, Lambiase A, Bucci MG. Efficacy of lodoxamide eye drops on mast cells and eosinophils after allergen challenge in allergic conjunctivitis. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:849-53. [PMID: 9160033 DOI: 10.1016/s0161-6420(97)30223-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the study is to evaluate in a double-blind, randomized study the efficacy of lodoxamide tromethamine 0.1% versus placebo. METHODS Signs and symptoms, tear tryptase, and tear fluid cytology were evaluated in 20 asymptomatic subjects with allergic conjunctivitis. The study included three allergen challenges in skin test-positive patients. At the first visit, a threshold dose of allergen was established. At the second visit, a bilateral ocular challenge was performed without pretreatment. At the third visit, either lodoxamide or placebo eye drops were used for 1 week before ocular challenge. RESULTS Lodoxamide significantly reduced tryptase levels (P < 0.01), neutrophils (P < 0.04), and eosinophils (P < 0.01) in the tear fluid and significantly inhibited ocular itching (P < 0.02) when compared with that of placebo. CONCLUSIONS Lodoxamide is effective in reducing tryptase levels and the recruitment of inflammatory cells in the tear fluid after allergen challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bonini
- Department of Opthalmology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy
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Lee Y, Raizman MB. VERNAL CONJUNCTIVITIS. Radiol Clin North Am 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0033-8389(22)00259-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Abstract
We measured tryptase, a neutral protease stored in the secretory granules of mast cells, by solid-phase radioimmunoassay in tears of 12 subjects with vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC) during remission phases, nine subjects with seasonal or perennial allergic conjunctivitis, and eight healthy controls. Mean values of tear tryptase levels were significantly (P < 0.02) increased in VKC patients (14.5 +/- 13 micrograms/l) when compared to those measured in patients with seasonal or perennial allergic conjunctivitis (0.6 +/- 0.1 microgram/l) and in controls (3.3 +/- 3.2 micrograms/l). In subjects with allergic conjunctivitis, the levels of tryptase, almost undetectable before allergen conjunctival challenge, showed a significant increase in the challenged eye 20 min-but not 6 h-after provocation in 5/9 cases. Our results indicate that VKC a severe ocular disease characterized by an increased number and abnormal distribution of mast cells in the conjunctiva, also shows elevated levels of tryptase in tears even during remission phases. Evidence of mast-cell activation, as revealed by a significant increase of tryptase levels in tears, in documented during the early-phase reaction, but not during the late-phase reaction, of allergic conjunctivitis patients challenged topically by specific allergen.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Magrini
- Institute of I Clinic e Medica, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
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