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Makinistian L, Zastko L, Tvarožná A, Días LE, Belyaev I. Static magnetic fields from earphones: Detailed measurements plus some open questions. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 214:113907. [PMID: 35870506 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Earphones (EP) are a worldwide, massively adopted product, assumed to be innocuous provided the recommendations on sound doses limits are followed. Nevertheless, sound is not the only physical stimulus that derives from EP use, since they include a built-in permanent magnet from which a static magnetic field (SMF) originates. We performed 2D maps of the SMF at several distances from 6 models of in-ear EP, showing that they produce an exposure that spans from ca. 20 mT on their surface down to tens of μT in the inner ear. The numerous reports of bioeffects elicited by SMF in that range of intensities (applied both acutely and chronically), together with the fact that there is no scientific consensus over the possible mechanisms of interaction with living tissues, suggest that caution could be recommendable. In addition, more research is warranted on the possible effects of the combination of SMF with extremely low frequency and radiofrequency fields, which has so far been scarcely studied. Overall, while several open questions about bioeffects of SMF remain to be addressed by the scientific community, we find sensible to suggest that the use of air-tube earphones is probably the more conservative, cautious choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Makinistian
- Department of Physics, Universidad Nacional de San Luis (UNSL), San Luis, Argentina; Instituto de Física Aplicada (INFAP), Universidad Nacional de San Luis (UNSL)-CONICET, San Luis, Argentina.
| | - L Zastko
- Department of Radiobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, University Science Park for Biomedicine, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Health Care, Catholic University in Ružomberok, Ružomberok, Slovakia
| | - A Tvarožná
- Department of Radiobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, University Science Park for Biomedicine, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - L E Días
- Department of Physics, Universidad Nacional de San Luis (UNSL), San Luis, Argentina
| | - I Belyaev
- Department of Radiobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, University Science Park for Biomedicine, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
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Carlberg M, Koppel T, Ahonen M, Hardell L. Case-control study on occupational exposure to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields and glioma risk. Am J Ind Med 2017; 60:494-503. [PMID: 28394434 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) was in 2002 classified as a possible human carcinogen, Group 2B, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer at WHO. METHODS Life time occupations were assessed in case-control studies during 1997-2003 and 2007-2009. An ELF-EMF Job-Exposure Matrix was used for associating occupations with ELF exposure (μT). Cumulative exposure (μT-years), average exposure (μT), and maximum exposed job (μT) were calculated. RESULTS Cumulative exposure gave for astrocytoma grade IV (glioblastoma multiforme) in the time window 1-14 years odds ratio (OR) = 1.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.4-2.6, p linear trend <0.001, and in the time window 15+ years OR = 0.9, 95%CI = 0.6-1.3, p linear trend = 0.44 in the highest exposure categories 2.75+ and 6.59+ μT years, respectively. CONCLUSION An increased risk in late stage (promotion/progression) of astrocytoma grade IV for occupational ELF-EMF exposure was found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Carlberg
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, Department of Oncology; Örebro University; Örebro Sweden
| | - Tarmo Koppel
- Department of Labour Environment and Safety; Tallinn University of Technology; Tallinn Estonia
| | - Mikko Ahonen
- Department of Information Technology and Media; Mid Sweden University; Sundsvall Sweden
| | - Lennart Hardell
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, Department of Oncology; Örebro University; Örebro Sweden
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3
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Calderón C, Ichikawa H, Taki M, Wake K, Addison D, Mee T, Maslanyj M, Kromhout H, Lee AK, Sim MR, Wiart J, Cardis E. ELF exposure from mobile and cordless phones for the epidemiological MOBI-Kids study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 101:59-69. [PMID: 28126406 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes measurements and computational modelling carried out in the MOBI-Kids case-control study to assess the extremely low frequency (ELF) exposure of the brain from use of mobile and cordless phones. Four different communication systems were investigated: Global System for Mobile (GSM), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) and Wi-Fi Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The magnetic fields produced by the phones during transmission were measured under controlled laboratory conditions, and an equivalent loop was fitted to the data to produce three-dimensional extrapolations of the field. Computational modelling was then used to calculate the induced current density and electric field strength in the brain resulting from exposure to these magnetic fields. Human voxel phantoms of four different ages were used: 8, 11, 14 and adult. The results indicate that the current densities induced in the brain during DECT calls are likely to be an order of magnitude lower than those generated during GSM calls but over twice that during UMTS calls. The average current density during Wi-Fi VoIP calls was found to be lower than for UMTS by 30%, but the variability across the samples investigated was high. Spectral contributions were important to consider in relation to current density, particularly for DECT phones. This study suggests that the spatial distribution of the ELF induced current densities in brain tissues is determined by the physical characteristics of the phone (in particular battery position) while the amplitude is mainly dependent on communication system, thus providing a feasible basis for assessing ELF exposure in the epidemiological study. The number of phantoms was not large enough to provide definitive evidence of an increase of induced current density with age, but the data that are available suggest that, if present, the effect is likely to be very small.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Calderón
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Hiroki Ichikawa
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan
| | - Masao Taki
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan
| | - Kanako Wake
- EMC Group, Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Darren Addison
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - Terry Mee
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - Myron Maslanyj
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Institute for Risk Assessment Science, Utrecht University, PO Box 80178, NL 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Radio Technology Research Department, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Malcolm R Sim
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Alfred Centre, Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
| | - Joe Wiart
- Télécom ParisTech, 37-39 Rue Dareau, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
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Bhatt CR, Redmayne M, Abramson MJ, Benke G. Instruments to assess and measure personal and environmental radiofrequency-electromagnetic field exposures. AUSTRALASIAN PHYSICAL & ENGINEERING SCIENCES IN MEDICINE 2015; 39:29-42. [PMID: 26684750 DOI: 10.1007/s13246-015-0412-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Radiofrequency-electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure of human populations is increasing due to the widespread use of mobile phones and other telecommunication and broadcasting technologies. There are ongoing concerns about potential short- and long-term public health consequences from RF-EMF exposures. To elucidate the RF-EMF exposure-effect relationships, an objective evaluation of the exposures with robust assessment tools is necessary. This review discusses and compares currently available RF-EMF exposure assessment instruments, which can be used in human epidemiological studies. Quantitative assessment instruments are either mobile phone-based (apps/software-modified and hardware-modified) or exposimeters. Each of these tool has its usefulness and limitations. Our review suggests that assessment of RF-EMF exposures can be improved by using these tools compared to the proxy measures of exposure (e.g. questionnaires and billing records). This in turn, could be used to help increase knowledge about RF-EMF exposure induced health effects in human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia.
| | - Mary Redmayne
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
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Gosselin MC, Kühn S, Kuster N. Experimental and numerical assessment of low-frequency current distributions from UMTS and GSM mobile phones. Phys Med Biol 2013; 58:8339-57. [PMID: 24216774 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/58/23/8339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The evaluation of the exposure from mobile communication devices requires consideration of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) over a broad frequency range from dc to GHz. Mobile phones in operation have prominent spectral components in the low-frequency (LF) and radio-frequency (RF) ranges. While the exposure to RF fields from mobile phones has been comprehensively assessed in the past, the LF fields have received much less attention. In this study, LF fields from mobile phones are assessed experimentally and numerically for the global system for mobile (GSM) and universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) communication systems and conclusions about the global (LF and RF) EMF exposure from both systems are drawn. From the measurements of the time-domain magnetic fields, it was found that the contribution from the audio signal at a normal speech level, i.e., -16 dBm0, is the same order of magnitude as the fields induced by the current bursts generated from the implementation of the GSM communication system at maximum RF output level. The B-field induced by currents in phones using the UMTS is two orders of magnitude lower than that induced by GSM. Knowing that the RF exposure from the UMTS is also two orders of magnitude lower than from GSM, it is now possible to state that there is an overall reduction of the exposure from this communication system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Christine Gosselin
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zeughausstrasse 43, 8004 Zurich, Switzerland. ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Calderón C, Addison D, Mee T, Findlay R, Maslanyj M, Conil E, Kromhout H, Lee AK, Sim MR, Taki M, Varsier N, Wiart J, Cardis E. Assessment of extremely low frequency magnetic field exposure from GSM mobile phones. Bioelectromagnetics 2013; 35:210-21. [PMID: 24203762 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic fields emitted by mobile phones have received much attention, relatively little is known about the extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields emitted by phones. This paper summarises ELF magnetic flux density measurements on global system for mobile communications (GSM) mobile phones, conducted as part of the MOBI-KIDS epidemiological study. The main challenge is to identify a small number of generic phone models that can be used to classify the ELF exposure for the different phones reported in the study. Two-dimensional magnetic flux density measurements were performed on 47 GSM mobile phones at a distance of 25 mm. Maximum resultant magnetic flux density values at 217 Hz had a geometric mean of 221 (+198/-104) nT. Taking into account harmonic data, measurements suggest that mobile phones could make a substantial contribution to ELF exposure in the general population. The maximum values and easily available variables were poorly correlated. However, three groups could be defined on the basis of field pattern indicating that manufacturers and shapes of mobile phones may be the important parameters linked to the spatial characteristics of the magnetic field, and the categorization of ELF magnetic field exposure for GSM phones in the MOBI-KIDS study may be achievable on the basis of a small number of representative phones. Such categorization would result in a twofold exposure gradient between high and low exposure based on type of phone used, although there was overlap in the grouping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Calderón
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, UK
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Carlberg M, Söderqvist F, Hansson Mild K, Hardell L. Meningioma patients diagnosed 2007-2009 and the association with use of mobile and cordless phones: a case-control study. Environ Health 2013; 12:60. [PMID: 23870102 PMCID: PMC3733594 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-12-60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To study the association between use of wireless phones and meningioma. METHODS We performed a case-control study on brain tumour cases of both genders aged 18-75 years and diagnosed during 2007-2009. One population-based control matched on gender and age was used to each case. Here we report on meningioma cases including all available controls. Exposures were assessed by a questionnaire. Unconditional logistic regression analysis was performed. RESULTS In total 709 meningioma cases and 1,368 control subjects answered the questionnaire. Mobile phone use in total produced odds ratio (OR) = 1.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.7-1.4 and cordless phone use gave OR = 1.1, 95% CI = 0.8-1.5. The risk increased statistically significant per 100 h of cumulative use and highest OR was found in the fourth quartile (>2,376 hours) of cumulative use for all studied phone types. There was no statistically significant increased risk for ipsilateral mobile or cordless phone use, for meningioma in the temporal lobe or per year of latency. Tumour volume was not related to latency or cumulative use in hours of wireless phones. CONCLUSIONS No conclusive evidence of an association between use of mobile and cordless phones and meningioma was found. An indication of increased risk was seen in the group with highest cumulative use but was not supported by statistically significant increasing risk with latency. Results for even longer latency periods of wireless phone use than in this study are desirable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Carlberg
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital, SE-701 85, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Söderqvist
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital, SE-701 85, Örebro, Sweden
- Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, County Council of Västmanland, SE-721 89, Västerås, Sweden
- Centre for Clinical Research, Uppsala University, Central Hospital Västerås, SE-721 89, Västerås, Sweden
| | - Kjell Hansson Mild
- Department of Radiation Physics, Umeå University, SE-90187, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Lennart Hardell
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital, SE-701 85, Örebro, Sweden
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Hardell L, Carlberg M, Hansson Mild K. Use of mobile phones and cordless phones is associated with increased risk for glioma and acoustic neuroma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 20:85-110. [PMID: 23261330 DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) at WHO evaluation of the carcinogenic effect of RF-EMF on humans took place during a 24-31 May 2011 meeting at Lyon in France. The Working Group consisted of 30 scientists and categorised the radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from mobile phones, and from other devices that emit similar non-ionising electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), as Group 2B, i.e., a 'possible', human carcinogen. The decision on mobile phones was based mainly on the Hardell group of studies from Sweden and the IARC Interphone study. We give an overview of current epidemiological evidence for an increased risk for brain tumours including a meta-analysis of the Hardell group and Interphone results for mobile phone use. Results for cordless phones are lacking in Interphone. The meta-analysis gave for glioma in the most exposed part of the brain, the temporal lobe, odds ratio (OR)=1.71, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.04-2.81 in the ≥10 years (>10 years in the Hardell group) latency group. Ipsilateral mobile phone use ≥1640h in total gave OR=2.29, 95% CI=1.56-3.37. The results for meningioma were OR=1.25, 95% CI=0.31-4.98 and OR=1.35, 95% CI=0.81-2.23, respectively. Regarding acoustic neuroma ipsilateral mobile phone use in the latency group ≥10 years gave OR=1.81, 95% CI=0.73-4.45. For ipsilateral cumulative use ≥1640h OR=2.55, 95% CI=1.50-4.40 was obtained. Also use of cordless phones increased the risk for glioma and acoustic neuroma in the Hardell group studies. Survival of patients with glioma was analysed in the Hardell group studies yielding in the >10 years latency period hazard ratio (HR)=1.2, 95% CI=1.002-1.5 for use of wireless phones. This increased HR was based on results for astrocytoma WHO grade IV (glioblastoma multiforme). Decreased HR was found for low-grade astrocytoma, WHO grades I-II, which might be caused by RF-EMF exposure leading to tumour-associated symptoms and earlier detection and surgery with better prognosis. Some studies show increasing incidence of brain tumours whereas other studies do not. It is concluded that one should be careful using incidence data to dismiss results in analytical epidemiology. The IARC carcinogenic classification does not seem to have had any significant impact on governments' perceptions of their responsibilities to protect public health from this widespread source of radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Hardell
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden.
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Kwon MS, Vorobyev V, Kännälä S, Laine M, Rinne JO, Toivonen T, Johansson J, Teräs M, Lindholm H, Alanko T, Hämäläinen H. GSM mobile phone radiation suppresses brain glucose metabolism. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2011; 31:2293-301. [PMID: 21915135 PMCID: PMC3323189 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of mobile phone radiation on cerebral glucose metabolism using high-resolution positron emission tomography (PET) with the (18)F-deoxyglucose (FDG) tracer. A long half-life (109 minutes) of the (18)F isotope allowed a long, natural exposure condition outside the PET scanner. Thirteen young right-handed male subjects were exposed to a pulse-modulated 902.4 MHz Global System for Mobile Communications signal for 33 minutes, while performing a simple visual vigilance task. Temperature was also measured in the head region (forehead, eyes, cheeks, ear canals) during exposure. (18)F-deoxyglucose PET images acquired after the exposure showed that relative cerebral metabolic rate of glucose was significantly reduced in the temporoparietal junction and anterior temporal lobe of the right hemisphere ipsilateral to the exposure. Temperature rise was also observed on the exposed side of the head, but the magnitude was very small. The exposure did not affect task performance (reaction time, error rate). Our results show that short-term mobile phone exposure can locally suppress brain energy metabolism in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myoung Soo Kwon
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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Hareuveny R, Eliyahu I, Luria R, Meiran N, Margaliot M. Cognitive effects of cellular phones: A possible role of non-radiofrequency radiation factors. Bioelectromagnetics 2011; 32:585-8. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.20671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 03/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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O'Connor RP, Madison SD, Leveque P, Roderick HL, Bootman MD. Exposure to GSM RF fields does not affect calcium homeostasis in human endothelial cells, rat pheocromocytoma cells or rat hippocampal neurons. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11828. [PMID: 20676401 PMCID: PMC2910734 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In the course of modern daily life, individuals are exposed to numerous sources of electromagnetic radiation that are not present in the natural environment. The strength of the electromagnetic fields from sources such as hairdryers, computer display units and other electrical devices is modest. However, in many home and office environments, individuals can experience perpetual exposure to an “electromagnetic smog”, with occasional peaks of relatively high electromagnetic field intensity. This has led to concerns that such radiation can affect health. In particular, emissions from mobile phones or mobile phone masts have been invoked as a potential source of pathological electromagnetic radiation. Previous reports have suggested that cellular calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis is affected by the types of radiofrequency fields emitted by mobile phones. In the present study, we used a high-throughput imaging platform to monitor putative changes in cellular Ca2+ during exposure of cells to 900 MHz GSM fields of differing power (specific absorption rate 0.012–2 W/Kg), thus mimicking the type of radiation emitted by current mobile phone handsets. Data from cells experiencing the 900 Mhz GSM fields were compared with data obtained from paired experiments using continuous wave fields or no field. We employed three cell types (human endothelial cells, PC-12 neuroblastoma and primary hippocampal neurons) that have previously been suggested to be sensitive to radiofrequency fields. Experiments were designed to examine putative effects of radiofrequency fields on resting Ca2+, in addition to Ca2+ signals evoked by an InsP3-generating agonist. Furthermore, we examined putative effects of radiofrequency field exposure on Ca2+ store emptying and store-operated Ca2+ entry following application of the Ca2+ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin. Multiple parameters (e.g., peak amplitude, integrated Ca2+ signal, recovery rates) were analysed to explore potential impact of radiofrequency field exposure on Ca2+ signals. Our data indicate that 900 MHz GSM fields do not affect either basal Ca2+ homeostasis or provoked Ca2+ signals. Even at the highest field strengths applied, which exceed typical phone exposure levels, we did not observe any changes in cellular Ca2+ signals. We conclude that under the conditions employed in our experiments, and using a highly-sensitive assay, we could not detect any consequence of RF exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney P. O'Connor
- Laboratory of Molecular Signalling, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Steve D. Madison
- Laboratory of Molecular Signalling, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - H. Llewelyn Roderick
- Laboratory of Molecular Signalling, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Martin D. Bootman
- Laboratory of Molecular Signalling, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Sakai N, Shimawaki S. Motion analysis of thumb in cellular phone use. Appl Bionics Biomech 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/11762320903239462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Johansson O. Disturbance of the immune system by electromagnetic fields—A potentially underlying cause for cellular damage and tissue repair reduction which could lead to disease and impairment. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2009; 16:157-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Wood AW, Loughran SP, Stough C. Does evening exposure to mobile phone radiation affect subsequent melatonin production? Int J Radiat Biol 2009; 82:69-76. [PMID: 16546905 DOI: 10.1080/09553000600599775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To test whether exposure to the emissions from a digital mobile phone handset prior to sleep alters the secretion of melatonin. MATERIALS AND METHODS In a double-blind cross-over design, 55 adult volunteers were both actively exposed or sham-exposed (in random order on successive Sunday nights) to mobile phone emissions for 30 min (0.25 W average power). Urine collection occurred immediately prior to retiring to bed and on rising the next morning. Melatonin output was estimated from principal metabolite concentrations (6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s) via radioimmunoassay), urine volumes and creatinine concentrations. RESULTS Total melatonin metabolite output (concentration x urine volume) was unchanged between the two exposure conditions (active 14.1+/-1.1 microg; sham 14.6+/-1.3 microg). The pre- and post-bedtime outputs considered separately were also not significantly different, although the pre-bedtime value was less for active versus sham exposure. When melatonin metabolite output was estimated from the ratio of aMT6s to creatinine concentrations, the pre-bedtime value was significantly less (p = 0.037) for active compared to sham. Examination of individual responses is suggestive of a small group of 'responders'. CONCLUSIONS Total nighttime melatonin output is unchanged by mobile phone handset emissions, but there could be an effect on melatonin onset time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W Wood
- Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.
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Simulation of pulsed ELF magnetic fields generated by GSM mobile phone handsets for human electromagnetic bioeffects research. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 31:235-42. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03179350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Jauchem JR. Effects of low-level radio-frequency (3kHz to 300GHz) energy on human cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, and other systems: A review of the recent literature. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2008; 211:1-29. [PMID: 17692567 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Revised: 01/19/2007] [Accepted: 05/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Occupational or residential exposures to radio-frequency energy (RFE), including microwaves, have been alleged to result in health problems. A review of recent epidemiological studies and studies of humans as subjects in laboratory investigations would be useful. METHODS This paper is a narrative review of the recent medical and scientific literature (from mid-1998 through early 2006) dealing with possible effects of RFE on humans, relating to topics other than cancer, tumors, and central nervous system effects (areas covered in a previous review). Subject areas in this review include effects on cardiovascular, reproductive, and immune systems. RESULTS A large number of studies were related to exposures from cellular telephones. Although both positive and negative findings were reported in some studies, in a majority of instances no significant health effects were found. Most studies had some methodological limitations. Although some cardiovascular effects due to RFE were reported in epidemiological studies (e.g., lower 24-h heart rate, blunted circadian rhythm of heart rate), there were no major effects on a large number of cardiovascular parameters in laboratory studies of volunteers during exposure to cell-phone RFE. In population-based studies of a wide range of RFE frequencies, findings were equivocal for effects on birth defects, fertility, neuroblastoma in offspring, and reproductive hormones. Some changes in immunoglobulin levels and in peripheral blood lymphocytes were reported in different studies of radar and radio/television-transmission workers. Due to variations in results and difficulties in comparing presumably exposed subjects with controls, however, it is difficult to propose a unifying hypothesis of immune-system effects. Although subjective symptoms may be produced in some sensitive individuals exposed to RFE, there were no straightforward differences in such symptoms between exposed and control subjects in most epidemiological and laboratory studies. Consistent, strong associations were not found for RFE exposure and adverse health effects. The majority of changes relating to each of the diseases or conditions were small and not significant. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of previous reviews of older literature and the current review of recent literature, there is only weak evidence for a relationship between RFE and any endpoint studied (related to the topics above), thus providing at present no sufficient foundation for establishing RFE as a health hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Jauchem
- Air Force Research Laboratory, Directed Energy Bioeffects Division, Radio Frequency Radiation Branch, San Antonio, TX 78235-5147, USA.
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Perentos N, Croft RJ, McKenzie RJ, Cvetkovic D, Cosic I. The effect of GSM-like ELF radiation on the alpha band of the human resting EEG. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2008; 2008:5680-5683. [PMID: 19164006 DOI: 10.1109/iembs.2008.4650503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Mobile phone handsets such as those operating in the GSM network emit extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields ranging from DC to at least 40 kHz. As a subpart of an extended protocol, the influence of these fields on the human resting EEG has been investigated in a fully counter balanced, double blind, cross-over design study that recruited 72 healthy volunteers. A decrease in the alpha frequency band was observed during the 20 minutes of ELF exposure in the exposed hemisphere only. This result suggests that ELF fields as emitted from GSM handsets during the DTX mode may have an effect on the resting alpha band of the human EEG.
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Valentini E, Curcio G, Moroni F, Ferrara M, De Gennaro L, Bertini M. Neurophysiological effects of mobile phone electromagnetic fields on humans: a comprehensive review. Bioelectromagnetics 2007; 28:415-32. [PMID: 17503518 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years a growing number of people have begun to use mobile phone technology. This phenomenon has raised questions and doubts about possible effects on users' brains. This literature review focuses on the human electrophysiological and neuro-metabolic effects of mobile phone (MP)-related electromagnetic fields (EMFs) published in the last 10 years. To this end, all relevant papers have been reported and, subsequently, a literature selection has been carried out by taking several criteria into account, such as: blind techniques, randomization or counter-balancing of conditions and subjects, detail of exposure characteristics and the statistical analyses used. As a result, only the studies meeting the selection criteria have been described, evaluated and discussed further. The main goal of this review is to provide a clear scenario of the most reliable experiments carried out over the last decade and to offer a critical point of view in their evaluation. It is concluded that MP-EMFs may influence normal physiology through changes in cortical excitability and that in future research particular care should be dedicated to both methodological and statistical control, the most relevant criteria in this research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Valentini
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Universitá di Roma "La Sapienza", Italy
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Straume A, Johnsson A, Oftedal G, Wilén J. Frequency spectra from current vs. magnetic flux density measurements for mobile phones and other electrical appliances. HEALTH PHYSICS 2007; 93:279-87. [PMID: 17846524 DOI: 10.1097/01.hp.0000266739.54093.9f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The frequency spectra of electromagnetic fields have to be determined to evaluate human exposure in accordance to ICNIRP guidelines. In the literature, comparisons with magnetic field guidelines have been performed by using the frequency distribution of the current drawn from the battery. In the present study we compared the frequency spectrum in the range 217 Hz to 2.4 kHz of the magnetic flux density measured near the surface of a mobile phone with the frequency spectrum of the supply current. By using the multiple frequency rule, recommended in the ICNIRP guidelines, we estimated the magnetic field exposure in the two cases. Similar measurements and estimations were done for an electric drill, a hair dryer, and a fluorescent desk lamp. All the devices have a basic frequency of 50 Hz, and the frequency spectra were evaluated up to 550 Hz. We also mapped the magnetic field in 3D around three mobile phones. The frequency distributions obtained from the two measurement methods are not equal. The frequency content of the current leads to an overestimation of the magnetic field exposure by a factor up to 2.2 for the mobile phone. For the drill, the hair dryer, and the fluorescent lamp, the supply current signal underestimated the exposure by a factor up to 2.3. In conclusion, an accurate exposure evaluation requires the magnetic flux density spectrum of the device to be measured directly. There was no indication that the devices studied would exceed the reference levels at the working distances normally used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aksel Straume
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), N-7491 Trondheim, Norway.
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Jokela K. Assessment of complex EMF exposure situations including inhomogeneous field distribution. HEALTH PHYSICS 2007; 92:531-40. [PMID: 17495653 DOI: 10.1097/01.hp.0000250620.32459.4c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Assessment of exposure to time varying electric and magnetic fields is difficult when the fields are non-uniform or very localized. Restriction of the local spatial peak value below the reference level may be too restrictive. Additional problems arise when the fields are not sinusoidal. The objective of this review is to present practical measurement procedures for realistic and not too conservative exposure assessment for verification of compliance with the exposure guidelines of ICNIRP. In most exposure situations above 10 MHz the electric field (E) is more important than the magnetic field (B). At frequencies above 500 MHz the equivalent electric field power density averaged over the body is the most relevant indicator of exposure. Assessment of specific absorption rate (SAR) is not needed when the spatial peak value does not exceed by 6 dB the average value. Below 50 MHz down to 50 Hz, the electric field induces currents flowing along the limbs and torso. The current is roughly directly proportional to the electric field strength averaged over the body. A convenient way to restrict current concentration and hot spots in the neck, ankle and wrist, is to measure the current induced in the body. This is not possible for magnetic fields. Instead, for a non-uniform magnetic field below 100 kHz the average magnetic flux density over the whole body and head are valid exposure indicators to protect the central nervous system. The first alternative to analyze exposure to non-sinusoidal magnetic fields below 100 kHz is based on the spectral comparison of each component to the corresponding reference level. In the second alternative the waveform of B or dB/dt is filtered in the time domain with a simple filter, where the attenuation varies proportionally to the reference level as a function of frequency, and the filtered peak value is compared to the peak reference level derived from the ICNIRP reference levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Jokela
- STUK Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, FIN-00881, Finland.
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Sage C, Johansson O, Sage SA. Personal digital assistant (PDA) cell phone units produce elevated extremely-low frequency electromagnetic field emissions. Bioelectromagnetics 2007; 28:386-92. [PMID: 17357117 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Initial tests indicate that personal and occupational use of personal digital assistants (PDAs or palm-held wireless units) produce high intensity bursts of extremely-low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF). These emissions could result in comparatively high ELF-EMF exposure in persons that carry a PDA close to the body (i.e., in a pocket or on a belt); or held to the head for cell phone conversations. ELF-EMF emissions of 10 microT were recorded on PDAs during normal office use over a 24 h test period. Results of ELF-EMF measurements show that email transmit and receive functions produce rapid, short-duration ELF-EMF spikes in the 2-10 microT range, each lasting several seconds to over a minute apparently depending on file download size. Some units produced spikes as high as 30-60 microT during email activities. Cell phone activity on PDAs produced continuously elevated ELF-EMF readings in the 0.5-1 microT range, as opposed to the rapid spiking pattern for email receipt and transmission. Switching the PDA unit from "OFF" to "ON" position resulted in single ELF-EMF pulses of over 90 microT on two units. Email downloads into the PDA can occur randomly throughout the day and night when the unit is "ON"; thus the user who wears the PDA may be receiving high-intensity ELF-EMF pulses throughout the day and night. The frequency of email traffic on the PDA, and the power switching unit (battery unit) may affect the frequency and intensity of ELF-EMF emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Sage
- 1396 Danielson Road, Santa Barbara, California 93108, USA.
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Abstract
Electrical power and mobile communications deliver enormous benefit to society, but there are concerns whether the electric and magnetic field (EMF) emissions associated with the delivery of this benefit are linked to cancer or other health hazards. This article reviews the strength of the available epidemiological and laboratory evidence and notes that this falls short of what is normally required to establish a causal link. However, because of scientific uncertainty a cautious approach is often advocated, but here, too, there may be a tendency to judge these risks more harshly than those in other areas with similar strength of evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Wood
- Faculty of Life and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Vic 3122, Australia.
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Ilvonen S, Sihvonen AP, Kärkkäinen K, Sarvas J. Numerical assessment of induced ELF currents in the human head due to the battery current of a digital mobile phone. Bioelectromagnetics 2006; 26:648-56. [PMID: 16189828 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the extremely low frequency (ELF) fields induced in the human head by the battery currents of a mobile phone are considered. The magnetic field induced by the phone was measured, and this data was used to calculate the resulting currents induced in the human head and brain. Both the finite element method (FEM) and finite integration technique (FIT) were used for numerical computations. The computed current density values were then compared with the guidelines given by the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The comparison showed that the computed exposure is well within the limits of those guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami Ilvonen
- Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland
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Abstract
The main difference concerning the use of mobile phones (MPs) between today's children and adults is the longer lifetime exposure of children when they grow older, due to starting to use MPs at an early age. Additionally, recent trends lead to a higher frequency of use among children, including higher popularity of MPs and features specifically designed to attract children. The prevalence of MP users is already very high and reaches >90% among adolescents in some countries. In a German study, 6% of 9-10 years old children used a MP for making calls daily; 35% owned their own MP. For children, MPs are dominant sources of radio wave exposures and relevant sources of extremely low frequency magnetic fields. For very young children, however, environmental exposure to radio waves may be of concern. In conclusion, children will have a much higher cumulative exposure to radio waves than today's adults when they are at the same age. Radio wave exposure of children may be estimated more easily, because the variety of exposure sources is smaller than for adults. As long as adverse health effects cannot be ruled out with some degree of certainty, it appears to be appropriate to instruct children and their parents about a prudent use of MPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Schüz
- Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
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25
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Challis LJ. Mechanisms for interaction between RF fields and biological tissue. Bioelectromagnetics 2005; Suppl 7:S98-S106. [PMID: 15931683 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Interaction of radiofrequency (RF) fields with biological tissue can involve either electric or magnetic fields. Many interaction mechanisms have been considered, both thermal and nonthermal, but it has not been established that any of these could result in adverse health effects at radiation levels below guidelines. The principles underlying most of these mechanisms have been well reviewed. The aim of the present study is to give a qualitative discussion of some of the more recently published work.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Challis
- University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
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