Parenting confidence during toddlerhood. A comparison of mothers and fathers

Self-Perceived Parental Role and Mental Health Concomitants Among Israeli Gay and Heterosexual Fathers

In this study we examined the association between self-perceived parental role and adverse mental health (indicated by depressive symptoms, neuroticism, and negative affect) in a sample of 82 Israeli gay fathers (Mean age = 39.57, SD = 6.70) that were individually matched with 82 heterosexual fathers (Mean age = 39.11, SD = 7.88). Results showed that although self-perceived parental role was associated with adverse mental health, this association was moderated by sexual orientation, such that a significant negative association between self-perceived parental role and adverse mental health was evident only among gay fathers. The findings are understood by features of gay fatherhood, which is intentional and purposeful, and usually achieved after contending with particular difficulties in the journey to fatherhood. These features presumably shape the perceived parental role, and thus may link more strongly with lower levels of adverse mental health among gay fathers, compared to heterosexual fathers.

I. INTRODUCTION: UNDERSTANDING THE TRANSITION TO SIBLINGHOOD FROM A DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE

The birth of an infant sibling is a common occurrence in the lives of many toddler and preschool children. Early childhood is also a time for the emergence of disruptive behavior problems that may set the stage for later problem behaviors. The current study examined individual differences in young children’s behavioral and emotional adjustment after the birth of a sibling in an effort to uncover developmental trajectories reflecting sudden and persistent change (maladaptation), adjustment and adaptation (resilience), gradual linear increases, and no change (stability and continuity). Growth mixture modeling (GMM) was conducted with a sample of 241 families expecting their second child using a longitudinal research design across the first year after the sibling’s birth (prenatal, 1, 4 8 and 12 months) on seven syndrome scales of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL 1.5–5:(Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000 ): aggression, attention problems, anxiety/depression, emotional reactivity, withdrawal, somatic complaints, and sleep problems. For all scales, multiple classes describing different trajectory patterns emerged that reflected predominantly intercept differences; children high on problem behavior after the birth were those high before the birth. There was no evidence of a sudden, persistent maladaptive response indicating children underwent a developmental crisis for any of the problem behaviors examined. Most children were low on all problem behaviors examined and showed little change or actually declined in problem behaviors over time, although some children did experience more pronounced changes in the borderline clinical or clinical range. Only in the case of aggressive behavior was there evidence of an Adjustment and Adaptation Response showing a sudden change (prenatal to 1 month) that subsided by 4 months, suggesting that some young children react to stressful life events but adapt quickly to these changing circumstances. Further, children’s withdrawal revealed a curvilinear, quadratic path, suggesting children both increased and decreased in their withdrawal over time. Guided by a developmental ecological systems framework, we employed data mining procedures to uncover the child, parent, and family variables that best discriminated the different trajectory classes and found that children’s temperament, coparenting, parental self-efficacy, and parent-child attachment relationships were prominent in predicting children’s adjustment after the birth of an infant sibling. Finally, when trajectory classes were used to predict sibling relationship quality at 12 months, children high on aggression, attention problems, and emotional reactivity in the year after the birth engaged in more conflict and less positive involvement with the infant sibling at the end of the first year.

Der Fragebogen zur Selbstwirksamkeit in der Erziehung (FSW)

Der 9 Items umfassende Fragebogen zur Selbstwirksamkeit in der Erziehung (FSW) wurde in Anlehnung an verschiedene international verbreitete Fragebögen entwickelt. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, den Fragebogen hinsichtlich seiner psychometrischen Güte sowie Validitätsaspekten zu überprüfen. Der FSW wurde anhand einer Stichprobe von N = 271 Müttern und N = 198 Vätern von Kindern zwischen 2.5 und 6.5 Jahren evaluiert. Für den Gesamtwert des FSW wurden gute interne Konsistenzen (Mütter: α = .78; Väter: α = .79) ermittelt. Die Zusammenhänge mit anderen Fragebögen fielen weitestgehend erwartungsgemäß aus. Der Fragebogen kann zukünftig in der Praxis und Forschung eingesetzt werden.

Psychosocial risk factors associated with fathers' mental health in the postnatal period: results from a population-based study

PURPOSE

Fathers' psychological distress in the postnatal period can have adverse effects on their children's wellbeing and development, yet little is known about the factors associated with fathers' distress. This paper examines a broad range of socio-demographic, individual, infant and contextual factors to identify those associated with fathers' psychological distress in the first year postpartum.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of data from 3,219 fathers participating in the infant cohort of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children at wave 1 when children were 0-12 months of age.

RESULTS

Approximately 10 % of fathers reported elevated symptoms of psychological distress. Logistic regression analyses revealed that the risk factors were poor job quality, poor relationship quality, maternal psychological distress, having a partner in a more prestigious occupation and low parental self-efficacy.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide new information to guide the assessment of fathers' risk for psychological distress in postnatal period. There are also important social policy implications related to workplace entitlements and the provision of services for fathers.

Predictors of parenting self-efficacy in mothers and fathers of toddlers

BACKGROUND

Researchers interested in child developmental outcomes have highlighted the role that parenting self-efficacy (PSE) plays in psychosocial child adjustment. PSE is a cognitive construct that can be broadly defined as an individual's appraisal of his or her competence in the parental role. PSE has emerged in the literature as an important variable when exploring variance in parenting skills. Despite this, much remains to be learned about PSE. Little is known about the predictors of PSE, with much of the existing research conducted in a piecemeal fashion that lacks a solid theoretical framework. In addition, PSE in fathers has been understudied and relatively little is known about PSE in families with toddler age children. Informed by Belsky's process model of parenting, this study explored similarities and differences in PSE and the predictors of PSE for mothers and fathers of toddlers.

METHODS

A total of 62 cohabiting couples whose first-born child was 18-36 months old completed self-report measures of PSE, general self-efficacy, depression, marital satisfaction, parenting stress, child difficultness and family functioning.

RESULTS

For fathers, parenting stress and their relational functioning (i.e. marital satisfaction and family functioning) with their spouse predicted PSE scores. For mothers, general self-efficacy and relational functioning were predictive of PSE.

CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The results of this study support the use of Belsky's process model of parenting to study the predictors of PSE. Important differences were found in the prediction models for mothers and fathers. Future studies need to clarify the nature of parental self-efficacy beliefs in fathers and continue to use comprehensive theoretical models to identify potentially relevant covariates of PSE. Limitations of the current investigation include reliance on self-report measures and the homogeneity of the sample.

Concurrent predictors of dysfunctional parenting and maternal confidence: implications for parenting interventions

BACKGROUND

The often intense nature of the conflict between parents and their toddlers requires better understanding of what happens during this stage of development and how difficulties can be prevented from escalating in the future. Clarification of the nature of family and parenting factors related to toddler behaviour allows better capacity for intervention development and tailoring to individual families.

METHODS

A total of 126 mothers of toddlers completed a self-report assessment battery, examining child behaviour, parenting style and confidence, as well as broader family adjustment measures.

RESULTS

The study found that maternal confidence and dysfunctional parenting were interrelated and were also predicted best by parenting variables, in contrast to socio-demographic and child variables. Maternal confidence also mediated the relationships between family income and toddler behaviour.

CONCLUSIONS

Parenting style and confidence are important modifiable factors to target in parenting interventions. The implications for the development, implementation and delivery of parenting interventions are discussed.

Integrative Review of Parenting in Nursing Research

PURPOSE

To synthesize and critically analyze parenting research in nursing.

DESIGN

Qualitative, integrative review of nursing research studies about parenting 1993-2004.

METHODS

Studies published by nurse researchers in peer-reviewed journals were systematically searched using CINAHL and Medline databases. Data were organized and analyzed with a sample of 17 nursing research studies from core nursing journals.

FINDINGS

The majority of parenting research has been focused on mothers, primarily about parenting children with physical or developmental disabilities. Research about fathers as parents is sparse. Parenting across cultures, parenting in the context of family, and theoretical frameworks for parenting research are not well developed.

CONCLUSIONS

The scope of nursing research on parenting is limited. The roles, functions, and contexts of parenting are not well defined. Further research is required to describe parenting and how parenting affects the health of individuals and families.

Maternal psychosocial predictors of pediatric health care use: Use of the common sense model of health and illness behaviors to extend beyond the usual suspects

Determinants of pediatric health care use extend beyond the health status of the child and economic and access considerations. Parental factors, particularly those associated with the mother, are critical. The common sense model of health and illness behaviors, which was developed to account for adult health care use, may constitute a framework to study the role of mothers in determining pediatric health care use. In the common sense model, the person's cognitive representations of and affective reactions to bodily states influence health care decision-making. There is a growing literature that points to the importance of maternal psychopathology (reflecting the affective component of the common sense model) and maternal parenting self-efficacy (reflecting the cognitive component of the model) as important contributors to pediatric health care use. The implications of this conceptualization for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: a review

This review examines the potential roles of parental self-efficacy (PSE) in parent and child adjustment and the role of parental cognitions in understanding behaviors and emotions within families. The areas in this review include parental competence and psychological functioning, as well as child behaviors, socio-emotional adjustment, school achievement, and maltreatment. There is strong evidence linking PSE to parental competence, and more modest linkage to parental psychological functioning. Some findings suggest that PSE impacts child adjustment directly but also indirectly via parenting practices and behaviors. Although the role of PSE likely varies across parents, children, and cultural-contextual factors, its influence cannot be overlooked as a possible predictor of parental competence and child functioning, or perhaps an indicator of risk. PSE may also be an appropriate target for prevention and intervention efforts. Limitations in the literature include measurement problems, variability in conceptualizations and definitions of the construct, and the lack of research exploring causality. Future research should focus on clarifying the measurement of PSE, studying potential bias in self-report of PSE, and utilizing experimental and longitudinal designs to untangle the issues of causal direction and potential transactional processes.

Perceived parental efficacy: concept analysis

AIMS

This paper describes a concept analysis carried out to remove some of the ambiguity surrounding the conceptual meaning of perceived parental efficacy and to distinguish it from related concepts such as parental confidence and parental competence.

BACKGROUND

Constructing parental efficacy is a crucial step for family members after the birth of their first child. For some authors, perceived parental efficacy is a motor for adequate parental practices. Confusion about the definition and measurement of this concept has hindered both psychology and nursing practice and research. Concept delineation and concept clarification are required in order to further the development of the concept of perceived parental efficacy.

METHODS

A literature search using a variety of online databases yielded 113 articles between the years 1980 and 2000. The final sample (n=60) consisted of 30 articles from two disciplines: nursing and psychology. A content analysis of the literature was done using Rodger's evolutionary concept analysis method.

FINDINGS

Content analysis of the literature yielded four contributors to perceived parental efficacy: positive enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and an appropriate physiological and affective state. Perceived parental efficacy can thus be defined as 'beliefs or judgements a parent holds of their capabilities to organize and execute a set of tasks related to parenting a child'.

CONCLUSION

This conceptual analysis has allowed perceived parental efficacy to be distinguished from parental confidence and parental competence. Both nursing and psychology research, practice and education will benefit from a more precise and delineated concept.

Parenthood experiences during the child's first year: literature review

BACKGROUND

Raising a child is probably the most challenging responsibility faced by a new parent. The first year is the basis of the child's development and is significant for growth and development. Knowledge and understanding of parents' experiences are especially important for child health nurses, whose role is to support parents in their parenthood.

AIM

The aim of this review was to describe mothers' and fathers' experiences of parenthood during the child's first year.

METHOD

A literature search covering 1992-2002 was carried out using the terms parenthood, parenting, first year, infancy and experience. Of the 88 articles retrieved, 33 articles (both qualitative and quantitative) met the inclusion criteria and corresponded to the aim of this review. The data were analysed by thematic content analysis.

FINDINGS

Being a parent during the child's first year was experienced as overwhelming. The findings were described from two perspectives, namely mothers' and fathers' perspectives, since all the included studies considered mothers' and fathers' experiences separately. The following categories were identified concerning mothers: being satisfied and confident as a mother, being primarily responsible for the child is overwhelming and causes strain, struggling with the limited time available for oneself, and being fatigued and drained. The following categories were found for fathers: being confident as a father and as a partner, living up to the new demands causes strain, being prevented from achieving closeness to the child is hurtful, and being the protector and the provider of the family. The unifying theme for these categories was 'living in a new and overwhelming world'.

CONCLUSION

There is a need for nurse interventions aimed at minimizing parents' experiences of strain. A suggested intervention is to find a method whereby child health nurses' support would lead to parents becoming empowered in their parenthood.

Behavior problems among young children in low-income urban day care centers

The purposes of this study were to describe: (a) the frequency and correlates of behavior problems among a sample of 2- and 3-year-old children from low-income families as seen by their parents and day care teachers, (b) the degree to which parents and teachers agree about the children's behavior problems in their respective contexts, and (c) family characteristics that distinguish toddlers with behavior problems both at home and at day care from the rest of the sample. Parents of 133 toddlers from 10 Chicago day care centers completed measures of child behavior problems, child behavioral intensity, parenting self-efficacy, discipline strategies, and stress. Children's day care teachers also completed a measure of child behavior problems. Parent-reported behavior problems were associated with higher child behavioral intensity, greater parent stress, lower self-efficacy, and discipline strategies characterized by irritability, coercion, and inconsistency. Parent and teacher ratings on child behavior were correlated for boys' behavior problems only. Parents reported more child behavior problems than teachers. Approximately 8% of the children were rated as having behavior problems at home and at day care. Although most of the children are functioning well, many of these parents and toddlers are engaged in highly stressful and coercive relationships.

The efficacy of parent training for promoting positive parent-toddler relationships

The effectiveness of a parent training program for promoting positive parent-child relationships was examined among families of 2-year-olds. Forty-six mothers and fathers and their toddlers were assigned to either an intervention or comparison group. Intervention group parents participated in a 10-week program that focused on principles for effectively interacting with their toddlers. Parents completed measures of parenting self-efficacy, depression, stress, and perceptions of their toddler's behaviors and were videotaped playing with their toddlers preintervention, postintervention, and 3 months following the intervention. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed that the parent training program led to significant increases in maternal self-efficacy, decreases in maternal stress, and improvements in the quality of mother-toddler interactions. No significant effects were found among fathers. Explanations for obtaining different outcomes for mothers and fathers are discussed and directions for future research are recommended.