Median and ulnar nerve palsies after infiltration of intravenous fluid

Extravasation Injuries of the Limbs in Neonates and Children-Development of a Treatment Algorithm

BACKGROUND

Hospitalized children and neonates very often receive intravenous treatment. There has not yet been any systematic study of the incidence of extravasation injuries in this age group. In a few studies of neonates in intensive care receiving intravenous treatment, incidence figures in the range of 18-46% have been reported; 2.4-4% sustain serious complications, such as necrosis and ulceration, that can lead over the long term to contractures, deformities, and impaired limb function due to unfavorable scarring. No guidelines currently exist for the care of pediatric extravasation injuries.

METHODS

This review is based on pertinent publications (from 1979 to June 2020) retrieved by a selective search in PubMed, as well as on experience from the authors' own institution.

RESULTS

In the absence of randomized controlled trials on the care of pediatric extravasation injuries, the available evidence is limited to small-scale comparative studies and case series. Conservative, medical, or surgical treatment can be used, depending on the volume of the extravasate, the nature of the substrate, and individual patient-related factors. It should first be determined whether the extravasated substance has no primary toxic properties or is a tissue irritant or a necrosis-inducing substance (vesicant). The skin and subcutaneous tissue should be examined for injury, coloration, swelling, capillary refill time, and pulses distal to the injury. Depending on the volume of the extravasate, the substrate, and the degree of tissue damage, the injury can be treated conservatively; medically, with the administration of an antidote, hyaluronidase, or a vasodilator such as phentolamine; or surgically, with multiple puncture procedures, washouts, or liposuction.

CONCLUSION

As there is no clear evidence that one form of treatment is superior to any other, the treatment of pediatric extravasation injuries remains an individual decision, with the known attendant risks of off-label treatment.

Acute compartment syndrome due to extravasation of peripheral intravenous blood transfusion

Extravasation is an inadvertent injection or leakage of fluid and drugs in the extravascular or subcutaneous space. The extravasation by massive transfused blood results in the elevation of intra-compartmental pressures. Severely increased pressure may lead to acute compartment syndrome (ACS). A 50-year-old man underwent craniectomy for traumatic subdural hemorrhage of the brain. During intraoperative periods, the blood components were transfused by rapid transfusion device and manual pressurized pumping through the central and peripheral lines because of hemorrhagic hypovolemic shock. Approximately 30 minutes after transfusion, we found a hardened right low leg that was obscured by the surgical drape. Immediately, fasciotomy was performed to release all four compartments. The early recognition and treatment of ACS were important factors contributing to anatomical structure salvage and preservation of function. Anesthesia providers should check the site of the insertion of the intravenous catheter, especially while pressurized massive transfusion via the peripheral intravenous catheter.

Treatment of extravasation injuries in infants and young children: a scoping review and survey

BACKGROUND

Extravasation injuries are caused by unintended leakages of fluids or medicines from intravenous lines, but there is no consensus on the best treatment approaches.

OBJECTIVES

To identify which treatments may be best for treating extravasation injuries in infants and young children.

DESIGN

Scoping review and survey of practice.

POPULATION

Children aged < 18 years with extravasation injuries and NHS staff who treat children with extravasation injuries.

INTERVENTIONS

Any treatment for extravasation injury.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Wound healing time, infection, pain, scarring, functional impairment, requirement for surgery.

DATA SOURCES

Twelve database searches were carried out in February 2017 without date restrictions, including MEDLINE, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) Plus and EMBASE (Excerpta Medica dataBASE).

METHODS

Scoping review - studies were screened in duplicate. Data were extracted by one researcher and checked by another. Studies were grouped by design, and then by intervention, with details summarised narratively and in tables. The survey questionnaire was distributed to NHS staff at neonatal units, paediatric intensive care units and principal oncology/haematology units. Summary results were presented narratively and in tables and figures.

RESULTS

The evidence identified in the scoping review mostly comprised small, retrospective, uncontrolled group studies or case reports. The studies covered a wide range of interventions including conservative management approaches, saline flush-out techniques (with or without prior hyaluronidase), hyaluronidase (without flush-out), artificial skin treatments, debridement and plastic surgery. Few studies graded injury severity and the results sections and outcomes reported in most studies were limited. There was heterogeneity across study populations in age, types of infusate, injury severity, location of injury and the time gaps between injury identification and subsequent treatment. Some of the better evidence related to studies of flush-out techniques. The NHS survey yielded 63 responses from hospital units across the UK. Results indicated that, although most units had a written protocol or guideline for treating extravasation injuries, only one-third of documents included a staging system for grading injury severity. In neonatal units, parenteral nutrition caused most extravasation injuries. In principal oncology/haematology units, most injuries were due to vesicant chemotherapies. The most frequently used interventions were elevation of the affected area and analgesics. Warm or cold compresses were rarely used. Saline flush-out treatments, either with or without hyaluronidase, were regularly used in about half of all neonatal units. Most responders thought a randomised controlled trial might be a viable future research design, though opinions varied greatly by setting.

LIMITATIONS

Paucity of good-quality studies.

CONCLUSIONS

There is uncertainty about which treatments are most promising, particularly with respect to treating earlier-stage injuries. Saline flush-out techniques and conservative management approaches are commonly used and may be suitable for evaluation in trials.

FUTURE WORK

Conventional randomised trials may be difficult to perform, although a randomised registry trial may be an appropriate alternative.

FUNDING

The National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.

Infusion technology: a cause for alarm

BACKGROUND

[corrected] Volumetric infusion pumps are widely used in paediatric practice. Tissue extravasation is a hazard. The occlusion pressure limit alarm, although not intended to detect extravasation, is the only warning sign present to indicate flow faults in the infusion systems.

METHODS

Extravasations were created in the subcutaneous plane of 20 limbs of five piglets with normal saline via an infusion pump. Five flow rates were used with each piglet allocated to one: 100 ml.h-1, 200 ml.h-1, 300 ml.h-1, 400 ml.h-1, 500 ml.h-1. The occlusion pressure limit was first set at low and adjusted to medium, then to high, upon alarm activation. Line pressure at 5-min intervals and upon alarm activation and volume of infusate given were measured. Limb diameters before and after infusion were measured.

RESULTS

Six out of 20 cases failed to activate any alarm. The low, medium and high occlusion pressure limit alarms were activated in 14, 1 and 0 instances, respectively. The incidence of alarm activation is higher in the forelimb compared with the hindlimb (P=0.001). The tissue compliance and volume infused at alarm activation are significantly lower in the former (P < 0.05). Line pressure increases with increase in flow rates for the same limb (P=0.013 Fore, P=0.005 Hind).

CONCLUSIONS

Occlusion pressure limit alarm cannot reliably detect extravasation especially at sites with high compliance, low flow rates, even at low occlusion limit. Line pressure depends on interplay of site (compliance) and flow rate and is independent of volume extravasated. Users must be aware of the set occlusion pressure limit. Repeated clinical assessment remains vital.

Pediatric ulnar mononeuropathy: report of 21 electromyography-documented cases and review of the literature

Pediatric ulnar mononeuropathies are the most frequent upper extremity mononeuropathies seen in the electromyography laboratory at The Children's Hospital, Boston. Twenty-one children (12 boys and nine girls) with pediatric ulnar mononeuropathy, aged 5 to 18 years, were seen from 1979 to 1991. The causes included acute trauma in 11 children (52%), compression in five children (24%), entrapment in three children (14%), and indeterminate in two children (10%). The sites of nerve injury included the elbow in 10 children (48%), forearm in three children (14%), wrist in five children (24%), hand in one child (4%), and indeterminate in the remaining two children (10%). Prognosis is more favorable in nontraumatic (83% improved) pediatric ulnar neuropathies than with traumatic lesions (56% improved), with at least a 1-year follow-up.