The biomechanics of decompressive laminectomy

Bone-Preserving Decompression Procedures Have a Minor Effect on the Flexibility of the Lumbar Spine

Objective

To mitigate the risk of iatrogenic instability, new posterior decompression techniques able to preserve musculoskeletal structures have been introduced but never extensively investigated from a biomechanical point of view. This study was aimed to investigate the impact on spinal flexibility caused by a unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression, in comparison to the intact condition and a laminectomy with preservation of a bony bridge at the vertebral arch. Secondary aims were to investigate the biomechanical effects of two-level decompression and the quantification of the restoration of stability after posterior fixation.

Methods

A universal spine tester was used to measure the flexibility of six L2–L5 human spine specimens in intact conditions and after decompression and fixation surgeries. An incremental damage protocol was applied : 1) unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression at L3–L4; 2) on three specimens, the unilateral laminotomy was extended to L4–L5; 3) laminectomy with preservation of a bony bridge at the vertebral arch (at L3–L4 in the first three specimens and at L4–L5 in the rest); and 4) pedicle screw fixation at the involved levels.

Results

Unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression had a minor influence on the lumbar flexibility. In flexion-extension, the median range of motion increased by 8%. The bone-preserving laminectomy did not cause major changes in spinal flexibility. Two-level decompression approximately induced a twofold destabilization compared to the single-level treatment, with greater effect on the lower level. Posterior fixation reduced the flexibility to values lower than in the intact conditions in all cases.

Conclusion

In vitro testing of human lumbar specimens revealed that unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression and bone-preserving laminectomy induced a minor destabilization at the operated level. In absence of other pathological factors (e.g., clinical instability, spondylolisthesis), both techniques appear to be safe from a biomechanical point of view.

Biomechanics of the lower thoracic spine after decompression and fusion: a cadaveric analysis

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Few studies have evaluated the extent of biomechanical destabilization of thoracic decompression on the upper and lower thoracic spine. The present study evaluates lower thoracic spinal stability after laminectomy, unilateral facetectomy, and unilateral costotransversectomy in thoracic spines with intact sternocostovertebral articulations.

PURPOSE

To assess the biomechanical impact of decompression and fixation procedures on lower thoracic spine stability.

STUDY DESIGN

Biomechanical cadaveric study.

METHODS

Sequential surgical decompression (laminectomy, unilateral facetectomy, unilateral costotransversectomy) and dorsal fixation were performed on the lower thoracic spine (T8-T9) of human cadaveric spine specimens with intact rib cages (n=10). An industrial robot was used to apply pure moments to simulate flexion-extension (FE), lateral bending (LB), and axial rotation (AR) in the intact specimens and after decompression and fixation. Global range of motion (ROM) between T1-T12 and intrinsic ROM between T7-T11 were measured for each specimen.

RESULTS

The decompression procedures caused no statistically significant change in either global or intrinsic ROM compared with the intact state. Instrumentation, however, reduced global motion for AR (45° vs. 30°, p=.0001), FE (24° vs. 19°, p=.02), and LB (47° vs. 36°, p=.0001) and for intrinsic motion for AR (17° vs. 4°, p=.0001), FE (8° vs. 1°, p=.0001), and LB (12° vs. 1°, p=.0001). No significant differences were identified between decompression of the upper versus lower thoracic spine, with trends toward significantly greater ROM for AR and lower ROM for LB in the lower thoracic spine.

CONCLUSIONS

The lower thoracic spine was not destabilized by sequential unilateral decompression procedures. Addition of dorsal fixation increased segment rigidity at intrinsic levels and also reduced overall ROM of the lower thoracic spine to a greater extent than did fusing the upper thoracic spine (level of the true ribs). Despite the lack of true ribs, the lower thoracic spine was not significantly different compared with the upper thoracic spine in FE and LB after decompression, although there were trends toward significance for greater AR after decompression. In certain patients, instrumentation may not be needed after unilateral decompression of the lower thoracic spine; further validation and additional clinical studies are warranted.

Thoracic spine fractures

Thoracic spine fractures have unique characteristics, and should be managed with specific criteria that are different from those used for thoracolumbar injuries. Fracture-dislocation injuries require high-energy injury, and should always be suspected in polytrauma patients with rib cage, sternum, cardiac, or pulmonary injuries. Although treatment is individualized, multisegmental posterior fixation sometimes combined with anterior decompression, is most commonly used. The authors review the current literature on this topic, and present their opinion on the management of such injuries.

Posterior instrumentation for thoracolumbar fractures

Thoracolumbar fractures are relatively common injuries. Numerous classification systems have been developed to characterize these fractures and their prognostic and therapeutic implications. Recent emphasis on short, rigid fixation has influenced surgical management. Most compression and stable burst fractures should be treated nonsurgically. Neurologically intact patients with unstable burst fractures that have >25 degrees of kyphosis, >50% loss of vertebral height, or >40% canal compromise often can be treated with short, rigid posterior fusions. Patients with unstable burst fractures and neurologic deficits require direct or indirect decompression. Posterior stabilization can be effective with Chance fractures and flexion-distraction injuries that have marked kyphosis, and in translational or shear injuries. Advances in understanding both biomechanics and types of fixation have influenced the development of reliable systems that can effectively stabilize these fractures and permit early mobilization.

Biomechanical effects of C2-C7 intersegmental stability due to laminectomy with unilateral and bilateral facetectomy

STUDY DESIGN

The biomechanical responses resulting from laminectomy with graded unilateral and bilateral facetectomy were quantified using a three-dimensional nonlinear finite element model of the C2-C7 motion segments.

OBJECTIVE

To study the influence of laminectomy with graded unilateral and bilateral facetectomy on the cervical spinal biomechanics.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Cervical spinal stenosis is a condition that is caused by the narrowing of the spinal canal. Laminectomy and facetectomy are commonly used surgical procedures for decompressing cervical spinal stenosis. Resection of the posterior structures causes instability and affects the internal stresses of the cervical spinal components. However, the influence of these surgical procedures on the biomechanical responses of the cervical spine has not been studied.

METHODS

A nonlinear finite element model of the intact C2-C7 was constructed and validated. Ten surgically altered models were created from the intact model and were tested under physiologic loading. Because of the inclusion of five motion segments, it was possible to determine the intersegmental responses and internal cortical shell and disc stresses in the adjacent altered and unaltered spinal components.

RESULTS

Under combined flexion and extension, intersegmental motions at C4-C5 and C5-C6 increased significantly after C5 laminectomy. Subsequent facetectomy performed at C5 and C6 on the laminectomized model only affected the responses at the C5-C6 segment. Overall, slight intersegmental responses of up to 5% were observed at the adjacent levels of C3-C4 and C6-C7. Laminectomy did not cause any significant increase in the intersegmental motions under lateral bending and axial rotation. Extending the surgical procedures to unilateral and bilateral facetectomy only increased the intersegmental motions slightly. Similar increases in the intervertebral disc and the cortical shell stresses were observed. These findings may partially explain the clinical observations of enhanced osteophytes formation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a better understanding of the surgically altered cervical spinal biomechanics and may help formulate treatment strategies such as spinal implants.

Influence of Laminotomies and Laminectomies on Cervical Spine Biomechanics under Combined Flexion-Extension

Posterior decompressive techniques including one- and two-level laminotomies and laminectomies are often used in treating cervical stenosis. Previously, several in vitro studies were conducted to help us understand the biomechanical changes occurring in the cervical spine after these surgical techniques. However, changes in the intersegmental flexibility under combined flexion-extension remain unclear. In this study, a 3-D nonlinear intact model of the C2–C7 was developed to evaluate the influence of one- and two-level laminotomies and laminectomies on the intersegmental moment rotational responses and internal stresses. The intact model was validated by comparing the predicted responses against experimental data. The validated model was then modified to simulate various surgical techniques for finite element analysis. Results showed that one- and two-level laminectomies increase the C2–C7 rotation motions by about 15% and 20%, respectively. The predicted increase in rotational motions also correlated well with the published data. Furthermore, results indicated that laminectomies would influence the biomechanical responses on both the affected and adjacent motion segments. In contrast, laminotomies have no significant effects on cervical biomechanics. To conduct a one-level laminectomy study, current findings indicate that it takes at least five motion segments to capture the immediate postsurgical biomechanical changes accurately and realistically. Minimally invasive cervical spine surgeries with one- or two-level laminotomies are preferred over one- and two-level laminectomies. Also, there is no consideration as to the efficacy of the two techniques in decompressing the spinal cord or nerve roots, which is the goal of the surgery, but is not examined in this study.

Prediction of inter-segment stability and osteophyte formation on the multi-segment C2-C7 after unilateral and bilateral facetectomy

The objective of this study was to determine the intersegment stability, disc degeneration, and osteophytes formation on the multisegment cervical spine (C2-C7) after unilateral and bilateral facetectomy. A geometrically accurate non-linear three-dimensional model of the intact human cervical spine was created from the digitized coordinates of the dry vertebrae. The intact model was validated against the published results under physiological loading conditions. Eight surgically altered models were created from the intact model. The intact and surgical altered models were subjected to physiological loading. The inclusion of five levels in the present model allowed accurate determination of the intersegment responses and internal cortical bone and disc annulus stress in the adjacent spinal components. Results indicated that facetectomy performed on C5-C6 significantly affects the corresponding stress and intersegment motions at the corresponding C5-C6 levels. The maximum increases were 18 per cent for bilateral facetectomy and 7 per cent for unilateral facetectomy under lateral bending. Combined flexion-extension and axial rotation caused an approximately similar amount of increases after total facetectomy. In addition, adjacent segments (C4-C5 and C6-7) also experience a slight increase in the intersegment responses and internal stress after facetectomy. It has been shown that facetectomy of greater than 50 per cent resulted in segment hypermobility and substantial increase in the disc annulus and cortical bone stress. Increase in the stress may lead to osteophytes formation. This study revealed important information that will help clinicians identify the critical intersegment stability and to decide on the amount of facets resection.

Outcome after limited posterior surgery for thoracic and lumbar spine metastases

The efficacy of 'limited posterior surgery' for metastases in the thoracic and lumbar spine was studied prospectively in 51 patients (32 men and 19 women, mean age 64 years). The most common primary tumors were prostate, breast, and renal carcinoma, 37 patients had metastases in the thoracic spine and 14 in the lumbar spine. Indications for surgery were severe pain or neurologic deficit. Of the 46 patients with neurologic symptoms, 25 were unable to walk. Surgery was confined to direct or indirect decompression and stabilization with a pedicle screw fixator over few segments as possible. Pain, as well as a variety of functional performance parameters and residential status were registered preoperatively and after surgery at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months, and at 6-monthly intervals thereafter. Pain was rated by the patient on a Visual Analog Scale, and functional performance was assessed with the Eastern Co-operative Oncology Group (ECOG) Performance Status Scale. We had no perioperative neurologic deterioration or death. Nineteen of the 25 nonambulatory patients regained their walking ability. Postoperative pain relief was significant and lasting over time. Nearly half of the patients attained improvement in functional performance. The median survival was 8 months. Older age and intact postoperative walking ability were positive factors for survival.

Biomechanical effects of laminectomy on thoracic spine stability

Thoracic columns (T1-L1 levels) from 15 fresh human cadavers were used to quantify alterations in the biomechanical response after laminectomy. Eight specimens were tested intact (Group I); the remaining seven preparations were tested after two-level laminectomy (Group II) at the midheight of the column. All specimens were fixed at the proximal and distal ends and loaded until failure. Force and deformation were collected by use of a data acquisition system. Failure of the Group I specimens included compressive fractures with or without posterior element distractions, generally at the midheight of the column. Group II preparations failed at the superior aspect of laminectomy or at a level above laminectomy, suggesting an increased load sharing. Biomechanical responses of the Group II preparations were significantly different (P < 0.05) from those of the Group I specimens at deformations from the physiological to the failure range. In addition, failure forces for Group II preparations were significantly lower (P < 0.001) than for Group I specimens. The stiffness and energy-absorbing capacities of the laminectomized specimens were also significantly different (P < 0.05) from those of the intact columns. In contrast, the deflections at failure for the two groups were not statistically different, suggesting that the human thoracic spine is deformation sensitive. Our data demonstrate that a two-level laminectomy decreases the strength and stability of the thoracic spine throughout the loading range. Although this is not a practical concern with an otherwise intact vertebral column, laminectomy, when other abnormalities such as vertebral fracture, tumor, or infection exist, may require stabilization by fusion and instrumentation.