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Li G, Li K, Lea AS, Li NL, Abdulla NE, Eltorky MA, Ferguson MR. In situ hybridization for the detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in human liver tissue. J Viral Hepat 2013; 20:183-92. [PMID: 23383657 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.2012.01642.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In situ hybridization (ISH) enables visualization of specific nucleic acid in morphologically preserved cells and tissue sections. Detection of the HCV genomes in clinical specimens is useful for differential diagnosis, particularly between recurrent HCV infection and acute cellular rejection in transplant specimens. We optimized an ISH protocol that demonstrated sensitivity and specificity for detecting genomic and replicative form of HCV RNA in tissue biopsies. Digoxigenin (Dig)-labelled sense and anti-sense riboprobes were synthesized using a plasmid containing a fragment of the highly conserved HCV noncoding region as a template. The efficiency of the Dig-labelled riboprobes in detecting genomic and replicative-intermediate HCV RNA was analysed in 30 liver biopsies from patients infected or uninfected with HCV in a blinded study. A Huh7 cell line that stably replicates genome-length HCV RNA was developed to be used as a positive control. Negative control riboprobes were used in parallel to evaluate and control for background staining. The anti-sense probe detected HCV RNA in 20/21 specimens from HCV-infected liver tissues obtained from patients and in 0/9 samples from patients with non-HCV-related liver diseases, resulting in a sensitivity and specificity of 95% and 100%, respectively. HCV genomic RNA was variably distributed in tissue sections and was located primarily in the perinuclear regions in hepatocytes. Detection of HCV RNA by our optimized ISH protocol appears to be a sensitive and specific method when processing clinical specimens. It may also be revealing when exploring the pathophysiology of HCV infection by verifying the presence of viral genetic material within heptocytes and other cellular elements of diseased liver tissue. This methodology might also evaluate the response to antiviral therapies by demonstrating the absence or alteration of genetic material in clinical specimens from successfully treated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Li
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
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Demonstration of hepatitis C virus RNA with in situ hybridization employing a locked nucleic Acid probe in humanized liver of infected chimeric mice and in needle-biopsied human liver. Int J Hepatol 2013; 2013:249535. [PMID: 23853723 PMCID: PMC3703335 DOI: 10.1155/2013/249535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. In situ hybridization (ISH) with high sensitivity has been requested to demonstrate hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sections of the liver. Methods. ISH employing a locked-nucleic-acid- (LNA-)modified oligonucleotide probe and biotin-free catalyzed signal amplification system (CSAII) was applied to HCV-RNA detection in the liver tissue. Nested reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed for HCV genotyping using total RNA extracted from FFPE sections. The target tissues included FFPE tissue sections of humanized livers in HCV-infected chimeric mice (HCV genotypes 1a, 1b, and 2a and noninfected) and of needle-biopsied livers from HCV-infected patients. Results. HCV-RNA was demonstrated with the ISH technique in HCV-infected liver tissues from both chimeric mice and 9 (82%) of 11 patients with HCV infection. The HCV signals were sensitive to RNase. Nested RT-PCR confirmed the genotype in 8 (73%) of 11 livers (type 1b: 6 lesions and type 2a: 2 lesions). HCV-RNA was not identified in chronic hepatitis B lesions, fatty liver, autoimmune hepatitis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Conclusion. ISH using the LNA-modified oligonucleotide probe and CSAII was applicable to detecting HCV-RNA in routinely prepared FFPE liver specimens.
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Clinicopathological features of hepatitis C virus disease after living donor liver transplantation: relationship with in situ hybridisation data. Pathology 2011; 43:156-60. [PMID: 21233678 DOI: 10.1097/pat.0b013e32834317ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Recurrent hepatitis is a significant complication after liver transplantation for hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease. To evaluate responsiveness to treatment of HCV disease after liver transplantation, in situ hybridisation (ISH) was employed. METHODS Sense and anti-sense probes for HCV were synthesised, and ISH studies were performed on 19 liver biopsy specimens from 19 recipients who had undergone living donor liver transplantation for HCV disease. ISH positive cells and total hepatocytes were counted, and the percentage of positive cells was calculated. Other clinical findings were compared retrospectively with the ISH results. RESULTS The subjects were divided into three groups: recurrent HCV hepatitis (RHC, n = 11), acute cellular rejection (ACR, n = 5), and recurrent HCV hepatitis with ACR (MIX, n = 3). The percentage of ISH positive cells was almost the same degree (10-20%) in the three groups. The RHC group was subdivided into two sets of patients in whom serum HCV titres decreased (group D, n = 7) or did not decrease (group ND, n = 3) after 1 month of IFN therapy. The percentage of ISH positive cells in group D was significantly lower than that in group ND (p < 0.05) CONCLUSIONS ISH for the recipients with HCV may be useful for predicting the response to interferon therapy.
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In situ hybridization for the differentiation of Actinomyces and Nocardia in tissue sections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 18:183-8. [PMID: 19704264 DOI: 10.1097/pdm.0b013e31818b3716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The specific identification of filamentous bacteria in tissue sections can be difficult. The filamentous bacteria Actinomyces and Nocardia often produce similar host responses and single bacterial organisms seem morphologically similar; however, their differentiation may be clinically significant. In situ hybridization (ISH) may assist in the rapid and accurate identification of these microorganisms. In this study, DNA probes were directed against the variable regions of 16S ribosomal RNA genes of multiple Actinomyces and Nocardia spp. Probes were tested on 26 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue specimens, each of which contained diagnostic foci of filamentous bacteria confirmed by both Gram and Grocott methenamine silver stains. On the basis of histology and clinical features, cases were classified as Actinomyces-related, n = 13 with 6 culture-proven cases and Nocardia-related, n = 13 with 11 culture-proven cases. Using this classification, all cases were assessed for cross-reactivity using other species-specific probes and probe specificity was determined. Overall, Gram and Grocott methenamine silver histochemical stains (100% sensitivity) were more sensitive than ISH (77% sensitivity for both Actinomyces and Nocardia probes). The slender caliber of filamentous bacteria was a limitation for ISH interpretation and necessitated careful examination of some slides. Probes demonstrated 100% specificity for identifying both species, 100% positive predictive value and 81% negative predictive value. No mixed infections were observed. This study demonstrates that ISH is highly specific for distinguishing between Actinomyces and Nocardia spp. in tissue sections. Although histochemical stains demonstrate greater sensitivity for organism detection, ISH is a rapid and specific technique that is especially useful for evaluating culture-negative or clinically unsuspected cases of filamentous bacterial infection.
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Persistence of hepatitis C RNA in liver allografts is associated with histologic progression independent of serologic viral clearance. J Transplant 2009; 2009:297528. [PMID: 20107579 PMCID: PMC2809420 DOI: 10.1155/2009/297528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2008] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) nondetectability in the liver may predict a sustained viral response (SVR) in patients with an end of treatment response. HCV RNA can be detected in liver tissue by in situ hybridization (ISH). Aim. To determine if HCV nondetectability in liver allografts by ISH can predict SVR in patients who cleared virus serologically on treatment. Methods. Twenty five patients with undetectable serum HCV on Interferon/Ribavirin therapy for HCV recurrence post liver transplant (LT) were studied. All had biopsies at 4 months post LT (baseline) and follow up with HCV ISH analysis performed. Results. 10 were ISH positive (group 1); 15 were ISH negative (group 2). Groups 1 and 2 had similar patient, donor, and viral characteristics at LT, as well as treatment duration at the time of the ISH assayed liver biopsy (13 ± 16 versus 10 ± 4 months P = .24). However, group 1 had longer total treatment duration (24 ± 10 versus 14 ± 5 months, P = .001). Eight (80%) group 1 and 9 (60%) group 2 patients achieved SVR. Mean grade and stage (modified Ishak score) were similar at 4 months, however, group 1 had higher grade (3 ± 1.7 versus 1.6 ± 1.3, P = .039) and stage (1.4 ± 1.4 versus 0.5 ± 0.6, P = .084) on the ISH assayed biopsy, after similar post LT intervals (23 ± 10 versus 24 ± 12 months, P = .91). Conclusion. Allograft HCV ISH nondetectability does not predict SVR in treatment responsive HCV recurrence, but is associated with less severe histologic disease.
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Powell RD, Pettay JD, Powell WC, Roche PC, Grogan TM, Hainfeld JF, Tubbs RR. Metallographic in situ hybridization. Hum Pathol 2007; 38:1145-59. [PMID: 17640553 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2007] [Revised: 04/30/2007] [Accepted: 05/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Metallographic methods, in which a target is visualized using a probe or antibody that deposits metal selectively at its binding site, offers many advantages for bright-field in situ hybridization (ISH) detection as well as for other labeling and detection methods. Autometallographically enhanced gold labeling procedures have demonstrated higher sensitivity than conventional enzyme chromogens. Enzyme metallography, a novel procedure in which an enzymatic probe is used to deposit metal directly from solution, has been used to develop bright-field ISH methods for HER2 gene determination in breast cancer and other biopsy specimens. It provides the highest level of sensitivity and resolution, both for visualizing endogenous gene copies in nonamplified tissues and for resolving multiple gene copies to allow copy enumeration in amplified tissues without the need for oil immersion or fluorescence optics. An automated enzyme metallography procedure, silver ISH, has been developed for use in slide-staining instruments. Metallographic staining also provides excellent results for immunohistochemistry and may be combined with other staining procedures for the simultaneous detection of more than one gene or combinations of genes and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Powell
- Nanoprobes, Incorporated, 95 Horseblock Road, Unit 1, Yaphank, NY 11980, USA.
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Narita K, Chien J, Mullany SA, Staub J, Qian X, Lingle WL, Shridhar V. Loss of HSulf-1 expression enhances autocrine signaling mediated by amphiregulin in breast cancer. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:14413-20. [PMID: 17363371 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m611395200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans are the oligosaccharide chains of heparan sulfate proteoglycans. The sulfation of HS glycosaminoglycan residues is required for its interaction with various heparin-binding growth factors to promote their biological activities to activate their high affinity receptor tyrosine kinases. We have identified HS glycosaminoglycan-6-O-endosulfatase HSulf-1 as a down-regulated gene in ovarian, breast, and several other cancer cell lines. Here we have shown that HSulf-1 inhibits autocrine activation of the EGFR-ERK (epidermal growth factor receptor-extracellular signal-regulated kinase) pathway induced by serum withdrawal in MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells. Short hairpin RNA-mediated down-regulation of HSulf-1 in HSulf-1 clonal lines of MDA-MB-468 led to a significant increase in autocrine activation of ERK compared with vector only control. The autocrine signaling was also inhibited with neutralization antibodies against amphiregulin and HB-EGF, the heparin-binding growth factor family of the EGF superfamily. Furthermore, HSulf-1-mediated inhibition of autocrine signaling was associated with reduced cyclin D1 levels, leading to decreased S phase fraction and increased G(2)-M fraction, as well as increased cell death. Finally, evaluation of HSulf-1 expression levels in primary invasive breast tumors by RNA in situ hybridization indicated that HSulf-1 is down-regulated in the majority (60%) of tumors, with a predominant association with lobular histology. These data suggest a potential role of HSulf-1 down-regulation in mammary carcinogenesis.
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MESH Headings
- Amphiregulin
- Autocrine Communication
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/pathology
- Carcinoma, Lobular/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Lobular/pathology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- Cell Survival
- Cyclin D
- Cyclins/metabolism
- Down-Regulation
- EGF Family of Proteins
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Epidermal Growth Factor/antagonists & inhibitors
- Epidermal Growth Factor/immunology
- Epidermal Growth Factor/metabolism
- Epidermal Growth Factor/pharmacology
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Glycoproteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Heparin-binding EGF-like Growth Factor
- Humans
- In Situ Hybridization
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/immunology
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism
- Middle Aged
- Neoplasm Invasiveness/pathology
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/metabolism
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/pathology
- RNA, Small Interfering/pharmacology
- Retroviridae
- S Phase
- Signal Transduction
- Sulfotransferases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Sulfotransferases/genetics
- Sulfotransferases/metabolism
- Tissue Array Analysis
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Affiliation(s)
- Keishi Narita
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Experimental Pathology, Mayo Clinic Cancer Center, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Staub J, Chien J, Pan Y, Qian X, Narita K, Aletti G, Scheerer M, Roberts LR, Molina J, Shridhar V. Epigenetic silencing of HSulf-1 in ovarian cancer:implications in chemoresistance. Oncogene 2007; 26:4969-78. [PMID: 17310998 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the mechanism by which HSulf-1 expression is downregulated in ovarian cancer, DNA methylation and histone acetylation of HSulf-1 was analysed in ovarian cancer cell lines and primary tumors. Treatment of OV207 and SKOV3 by 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine resulted in increased transcription of HSulf-1. Sequence analysis of bisulfite-modified genomic DNA from ovarian cell lines and primary tumors without HSulf-1 expression revealed an increase in the frequency of methylation of 12 CpG sites in exon 1A. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed an increase in histone H3 methylation in cell lines without HSulf-1 expression. To assess the significance of HSulf-1 downregulation in ovarian cancer, OV167 and OV202 cells were transfected with HSulf-1 siRNA. Downregulation of HSulf-1 expression in OV167 and OV202 cells lead to an attenuation of cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity. Moreover, patients with ovarian tumors expressing higher levels of HSulf-1 showed a 90% response rate (27/30) to chemotherapy compared to a response rate of 63% (19/30) in those with weak or moderate levels (P=0.0146, chi(2) test). Collectively, these data indicate that HSulf-1 is epigenetically silenced in ovarian cancer and that epigenetic therapy targeting HSulf-1 might sensitize ovarian tumors to conventional first-line therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Staub
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Division of Experimental Pathology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Nebbia G, Mattes FM, Cholongitas E, Garcia-Diaz A, Samonakis DN, Burroughs AK, Emery VC. Exploring the bidirectional interactions between human cytomegalovirus and hepatitis C virus replication after liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2007; 13:130-5. [PMID: 17192909 DOI: 10.1002/lt.21037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recurrence of Hepatitis C (HCV) post-liver transplantation (LT) is universal and its course is more aggressive than in immunocompetent individuals. Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is a common post-LT infection and has immunomodulatory effects that could adversely affect the outcome of HCV. To date, the effect of HCV replication on the dynamics of CMV have not been investigated. From 2000 to 2004, a cohort of 69 HCV-infected liver transplant recipients and 188 HCV-negative liver transplant recipients (NON-HCV cohort) were monitored for CMV infection twice weekly by CMV polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with preemptive therapy initiated after 2 consecutive positive results. None of the patients received CMV prophylaxis. A subset of 18 HCV-infected patients had their HCV viral load monitored regularly post-LT by quantitative PCR. CMV DNAemia (>200 genomes/mL blood) did not influence the level of HCV replication within 150 days posttransplantation or the stage of liver fibrosis in liver biopsies at 1 yr post-LT. There were no differences in the incidence of CMV DNAemia or replication dynamics in the HCV cohort compared to the NON-HCV cohort. In conclusion, short term CMV viremia does not enhance the replication of HCV after LT, while HCV replication does not alter the replication dynamics of CMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaia Nebbia
- Department of Infection, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London, UK
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Carvalho HS, Baptista ML, Pinto MA, Silva M, Takiya CM, Chagas V, Pannain V, Coelho HSM, Yoshida CFT. Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA by in situ hybridization in paraformaldehyde fixed biopsies. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2005; 100:269-72. [PMID: 16113866 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762005000300009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fourteen hepatitis C virus (HCV) chronically infected patients were submitted to routine liver biopsy for histological evaluation. Liver samples were assayed to HCV-RNA by in situ hybridization, using digoxigenin labeled probe. HCV genotypes were found to be predominantly type 1 (71.4%), followed by genotype 3 (21.4%), and genotype 2 (7.2%). Alanine-aminotransferase levels were raised in 10 patients. The histopathological scores were minimal (21.4%), mild (57.2%), and moderate (21.4%). Viral RNA was detected in liver cells from nine patients (64.3%). ISH method provides localization and poor confirmation of HCV RNA in the liver tissue of HCV chronic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- H S Carvalho
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Falcón V, Acosta-Rivero N, Shibayama M, Chinea G, Gavilondo JV, de la Rosa MC, Menéndez I, Gra B, Dueñas-Carrera S, Viña A, García W, González-Bravo M, Luna-Munoz J, Miranda-Sanchez M, Morales-Grillo J, Kouri J, Tsutsumi V. HCV core protein localizes in the nuclei of nonparenchymal liver cells from chronically HCV-infected patients. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 329:1320-8. [PMID: 15766571 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.02.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2005] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of hepatitis C virus (HCV) pathogenesis is an important part of HCV research. Recent experimental evidence suggests that the HCV core protein (HCcAg) has numerous functional activities. These properties suggest that HCcAg, in concert with cellular factors, may contribute to pathogenesis during persistent HCV infection. HCV is capable of infecting cells other than hepatocytes. Although the extrahepatic cellular tropism of HCV may play a role in the pathophysiology of this infection, the precise biological significance of the presence of HCV components in different liver cell types presently remains to be established. In this study, HCcAg was detected in nonparenchymal liver cells of six patients out of eight positive for serum HCV RNA. Immunostaining with anti-HCcAg mAbs revealed the presence of this protein in different liver cell types such as lymphocytes, Kupffer, polymorphonuclear, pit, endothelial, stellate, and fibroblast-like cells. Interestingly, HCcAg was immunolabeled not only in the cytoplasm but also in the nucleus of these cells. Remarkably, HCcAg co-localized with large lipid droplets present in stellate cells and with collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix. Moreover, HCcAg was immunolabeled in bile canaliculus suggesting the involvement of the biliary system in the pathobiology of HCV. Data suggest that nonparenchymal liver cells may constitute a reservoir for HCV replication. Besides, HCcAg may contribute to modulate immune function and fibrosis in the liver as well as steatosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Falcón
- Biomedicine Division, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 6162, C.P. 10600, Havana, Cuba.
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Grewal AK, Lopes MB, Berg CL, Bennett AK, Alves VAF, Trugman JM. Recurrent demyelinating myelitis associated with hepatitis C viral infection. J Neurol Sci 2004; 224:101-6. [PMID: 15450779 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2004.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2003] [Revised: 06/15/2004] [Accepted: 06/16/2004] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We report a 46-year-old-man who developed recurrent myelitis associated with hepatitis C viral (HCV) infection. Spinal cord biopsy showed acute demyelination without evidence of vasculitis. Antibodies to HCV were present in the CSF; HCV RNA was not detected in the CSF. Neither HCV antigens nor RNA were detected in the spinal cord biopsy, whereas they were found in the liver biopsy. Evaluation for other infectious or autoimmune causes was unrevealing. These observations suggest that recurrent myelitis in this patient is etiologically related to HCV infection, possibly via an immune-mediated mechanism. This is the first report of pathologically proven myelitis associated with HCV infection and we suggest that HCV be considered in the differential diagnosis of the transverse myelitis syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrit K Grewal
- Department of Neurology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, PO Box 800394, 22911, USA
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