Coronary electron beam computed tomography in 13 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and two or more cardiovascular risk factors

Imbalance between endothelial damage and repair: a gateway to cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus

Atherosclerosis is accelerated in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and it leads to excessive cardiovascular complications in these patients. Despite the improved awareness of cardiovascular disease and advent of clinical diagnostics, the process of atherogenesis in most patients remains clinically silent until symptoms and signs of cardiovascular complications develop. As evidence has demonstrated that vascular damage is already occurring before clinically overt cardiovascular disease develops in lupus patients, intervention at the preclinical stage of atherogenesis would be plausible. Indeed, endothelial dysfunction, one of the earliest steps of atherogenesis, has been demonstrated to occur in lupus patients even when they are naïve for cardiovascular disease. Currently known “endothelium-toxic” factors including type 1 interferon, proinflammatory cytokines, inflammatory cells, immune complexes, costimulatory molecules, neutrophils extracellular traps, lupus-related autoantibodies, oxidative stress, and dyslipidemia, coupled with the aberrant functions of the endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) which are crucial to vascular repair, likely tip the balance towards endothelial dysfunction and propensity to develop cardiovascular disease in lupus patients. In this review, altered physiology of the endothelium, factors leading to perturbed vascular repair contributed by lupus EPC and the impact of proatherogenic factors on the endothelium which potentially lead to atherosclerosis in lupus patients will be discussed.

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) does not slow the progression of subclinical atherosclerosis in SLE over 2 years

Accelerated atherosclerosis is a major cause of mortality in SLE. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has been shown to suppress growth factor-induced proliferation of vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells in animal models. We hypothesized that MMF might modify the inflammatory component of atherosclerosis in SLE. We examined the effect of MMF on atherosclerosis as measured by changes in carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) or coronary artery calcium (CAC) over 2 years. CAC and carotid IMT were measured at baseline and 2 years later in a cohort of 187 patients with SLE. The cohort was 91% women, 59% Caucasian, and 35% African-American, with a mean age of 45 ± 11 years. Of these, 12.5% (n = 25) received MMF during follow-up. The daily dose ranged from 500 to 3,000 mg/day, and duration ranged from 84 days to the entire 2 years. We divided MMF users into three groups: low exposure (<1,500 mg average daily dose), high exposure (≥1,500 average daily dose), and any exposure of MMF (<1,500 or ≥1,500 average daily dose) for 2 years. The mean CAC increased in all four groups: no MMF: 1.17-1.28, low MMF: 1.02-1.13, high MMF: 1.44-1.61, and any MMF: 1.21-1.34 log-Agatston units. Compared to no MMF, there was no statistically different change between the three groups (p = 0.99, 0.87, and 0.91). Similarly, mean carotid IMT increased in all four groups: no MMF: 0.58-0.66, low MMF: 0.55-0.60, high MMF: 0.56-0.71, and any MMF: 0.56-0.66. We then adjusted for statin use, lupus nephritis, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, cholesterol, and age during the 2-year follow-up. The association between MMF exposure and change in CAC or carotid IMT was not statistically significant (p = 0.63 for CAC, and p = 0.085 for carotid IMT). There was no evidence that MMF slowed or decreased the progression of atherosclerosis as measured by carotid IMT or CAC. Because the number of patients taking MMF was only twenty-five, larger studies for longer time periods are needed to explore any effect of MMF on subclinical atherosclerosis in SLE.

Ethnic differences in cardiovascular risk in rheumatic disease: focus on Asians

Rheumatic diseases are associated with high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Considerable differences exist in the frequency of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and events among people of different ethnic origins, but little is known of the ethnic variations in the relative distribution of CVD risk factors and the degree of atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatic diseases. Understanding this variation will provide insight into the underlying pathogenesis of CVD in patients with rheumatic diseases, and aid in future studies of the detection and management of this complication. In general, although Asian patients seem to have fewer background CVD risk factors and are less affected by metabolic syndrome (MetS) than their non-Asian counterparts, those with rheumatic disease are equally as susceptible to CVD. Furthermore, it seems that systemic inflammation and mechanisms that do not involve conventional CVD risk factors and MetS have an important role in the development of atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatic diseases. Here we examine the frequency of conventional CVD risk factors and the prevalence of MetS in both Asian and non-Asian patients with selected rheumatic diseases. We also discuss the burden of CVD, as evaluated using various surrogate markers in these patients, and their overall CVD mortality rate.

Management of cardiovascular complications in systemic lupus erythematosus

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Patients with SLE have an excess risk compared with the general population; this is particularly pronounced in younger women with SLE who have an excess risk of over 50-fold compared with population controls. There is a higher prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with SLE compared with controls, as demonstrated by a variety of imaging modalities discussed in this review. The causality of the excess risk of CVD and subclinical atherosclerosis is multifactorial in patients with SLE. While traditional risk factors play a role, after controlling for the traditional Framingham risk factors, the excess risk is still 7.5-fold greater than the general population. This review will also cover novel cardiovascular risk factors and some SLE-specific variables that contribute to CVD risk. This review discusses the risk factor modification and the evidence available for treatment of these risk factors in SLE. There have not yet been any published randomized, controlled trials in patients with SLE with respect to CVD risk factor modifications. Thus, the treatment and management recommendations are based largely on published guidelines for other populations at high risk for CVD.

Pattern of Arterial Calcification in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Objective.

To evaluate the prevalence and pattern of arterial calcification in patients with asymptomatic systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) compared with control subjects. SLE patients are prone to adverse cardiovascular events; however, the underlying atherosclerotic process is unknown. Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) measured arterial calcium score (CS) reflecting underlying atherosclerosis and is closely associated with cardiovascular events.

Methods.

Fifty age and sex matched SLE patients and controls were enrolled. All subjects underwent 64 slice MDCT scan to evaluate CS in coronary, carotid arteries and the aorta.

Results.

As compared with controls, SLE patients had higher mean CS and prevalence of CS > 0 across all vascular beds. After adjustment for age and sex, SLE patient odds of having CS > 0 in any vascular bed was 33.6 (95% CI: 9.5–165.2) were higher versus patients in the control group, mainly due to more prevalent coronary calcification (OR 30.0, 95% CI: 6.7–203.8). In SLE patients, the most frequent vessel with CS > 0 was coronary (42%) followed by carotid artery (24%). Further, arterial calcification occurred early involving 40% of SLE patients at age < 40 years, with increasing prevalence as age advanced.

Conclusion.

Our study confirms that patients with SLE have significantly higher prevalence and extent of systemic arterial calcification compared with age and sex matched controls.