Conservative and Postoperative Rehabilitation of Isolated and Combined Injuries of the Medial Collateral Ligament

[Injuries of the medial side of the knee : When and how should they be treated?]

Different medial structures are responsible for restraining valgus rotation, external rotation, and anteromedial rotation. When injured this can result in various degrees of isolated and combined instabilities. In contrast to earlier speculation, the posterior oblique ligament (POL) is no longer considered to be the main stabilizer of anteromedial rotatory instability (AMRI). Acute proximal medial ruptures are typically managed conservatively with very good clinical results. Conversely, acute distal ruptures usually require a surgical intervention. Chronic instabilities mostly occur in combination with instabilities of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The clinical examination is a particularly important component in these cases to determine the indications for surgery for an additional medial reconstruction. In cases of severe medial and anteromedial instabilities, surgical treatment should be considered. Biomechanically, a combined medial and anteromedial reconstruction appears to be superior to other reconstruction methods; however, there is currently a lack of clinical studies to confirm this biomechanical advantage.

An MCL internal brace can withstand cyclic fatigue loading and produce a valgus load to failure similar to that of intact knees

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to report on the biomechanical durability and strength of an MCL internal brace construct. The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference between this construct and the intact MCL in terms of deflection during fatigue testing and the ultimate failure load.

METHODS

Eight cadaver knees were used. A grade 3 equivalent MCL tear was created with both the superficial and deep femoral MCL severed. An internal brace was created by placing a cortical button and loop through the center of the femoral MCL origin and secured on the lateral cortex of the distal femur. A FiberTape (Arthrex, Naples, FL) was looped through the cortical button loop and was secured in the center of the tibial insertion of the MCL. After pre-cycling, the specimens underwent 1000 cycles of compressive load between 100 and 300 N, using four point bending testing into direct valgus. Pre and post testing deflection was measured using three dimensional motion data from two sets of reflective markers. A load-to-failure test was then conducted with failure defined as the first significant decrease in the load-displacement curve.

RESULTS

The mean increase in deflection between pre- and post-testing was 0.6° (SD ± 0.3°). The mean failure bending moment was 122.4 Nm (SD ± 29 Nm).

CONCLUSION

The internal brace construct employed in this study was able to withstand cyclic fatigue loading and recorded a valgus load to failure similar to that of intact knees. It is important for clinicians who are considering using this commercially available technique to be aware of how the construct performs under cyclic loading compared to the intact MCL.

Consensus Guidelines on Interventional Therapies for Knee Pain (STEP Guidelines) from the American Society of Pain and Neuroscience

Knee pain is second only to the back as the most commonly reported area of pain in the human body. With an overall prevalence of 46.2%, its impact on disability, lost productivity, and cost on healthcare cannot be overlooked. Due to the pervasiveness of knee pain in the general population, there are no shortages of treatment options available for addressing the symptoms. Ranging from physical therapy and pharmacologic agents to interventional pain procedures to surgical options, practitioners have a wide array of options to choose from – unfortunately, there is no consensus on which treatments are “better” and when they should be offered in comparison to others. While it is generally accepted that less invasive treatments should be offered before more invasive ones, there is a lack of agreement on the order in which the less invasive are to be presented. In an effort to standardize the treatment of this extremely prevalent pathology, the authors present an all-encompassing set of guidelines on the treatment of knee pain based on an extensive literature search and data grading for each of the available alternative that will allow practitioners the ability to compare and contrast each option.

Modified Bosworth Technique for Medial Collateral Ligament Reconstruction of the Knee Using Semitendinosus Tendon Autograft

The medial collateral ligament (MCL) is a major contributor to knee joint stability and is the most common ligament involved in knee injuries. When conservative management for high-grade MCL injuries fails, operative treatment is indicated. Various reconstruction techniques are described in the literature. The following report describes a reconstruction technique based on the modified Bosworth. We present a step-by-step technique for using autograft semitendinosus tendon as a double limb to reconstruct the MCL and if necessary, the posterior oblique ligament. The technique is versatile with respect to a spectrum of MCL injury patterns, isometric, incorporates techniques that are common to other knee reconstructions, and uses readily available autograft. It has been used extensively by the senior authors as an adjunct/augmentation to the repair of acute MCL injuries as well as in the reconstruction of chronic MCL laxity. The technique restores stability to rotation and valgus stress while maintaining the distal insertion of the semitendinosus intact.

Midterm Outcomes, Complications, and Return to Sports After Medial Collateral Ligament and Posterior Oblique Ligament Reconstruction for Medial Knee Instability: A Systematic Review

Background

In cases of multiple ligaments or medial collateral ligament (MCL) reconstruction, restoring the native anatomy of the posterior oblique ligament (POL) to address chronic valgus instability has been attracting increased attention.

Purpose

To review the current literature on postoperative outcomes, complications, and return to sports after superficial MCL-POL (sMCL-POL) reconstruction to restore medial knee integrity.

Study Design

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4.

Methods

A systematic review was conducted based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Two independent reviewers searched the PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases using the terms "posterior oblique ligament," "posteromedial corner of the knee," and "reconstruction." Included were studies that reported postoperative clinical and functional outcomes in patients who had undergone a combined sMCL-POL reconstruction for medial knee instability. The authors evaluated surgical technique, rehabilitation protocol, postoperative outcomes (Lysholm, International Knee Documentation Committee [IKDC], and Tegner scores and valgus stress radiograph), and return to sports and complication rates across the included studies.

Results

A total of 6 studies were reviewed. The cohort consisted of 199 patients (121 men and 78 women), with a mean age of 32.7 ± 3.9 years (range, 27.4-36.6 years). The Lysholm and IKDC scores improved from pre- to postoperatively (Lysholm, from 67.2 ± 20.4 to 89.4 ± 3; IKDC, from 45.8 ± 2.1 to 84.8 ± 7.5). The Tegner score produced satisfactory results, from a preoperative mean of 3.3 ± 2.4 to 6.3 ± 0.9 postoperatively. The medial joint opening on valgus stress radiographs ranged from 7.5 ± 1.1 mm preoperatively to 3 ± 3.1 mm postoperatively. After passing activity-specific functional and clinical tests, 88% to 91.3% of the patients were reported to have returned to recreational sports within 6 to 12 months postoperatively, whereas 10% of the patients developed postoperative complications.

Conclusion

Satisfactory clinical and functional outcomes, a high rate of return to recreational sports, and a low rate of postoperative complications were reported after an sMCL-POL reconstruction to restore medial knee integrity.

Anatomic reconstruction of the medial collateral ligament in multi-ligaments knee injury using achilles allograft : a modification of Marx’s technique

Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL) injury may require operative treatment. Marx et al. described the latest technique for reconstruction of MCL. While good results have been reported using the Marx technique, some issues have been observed. To address the mentioned issues, a modification to the Marx technique has been devised. Eleven patients were enrolled and their ligaments were repaired by the fixation of allograft on the proximal and distal attachment footprints of the superficial MCL. For preventing loss of knee ROM, MCL and other ligaments were reconstructed in 2 separate stages. At the last follow up the ROM, knee ligament laxity and functional outcome scores, subjective (IKDC) and Lysholm score were evaluated and recorded. Knee motion was maintained in all cases. Two cases demonstrated 1+ valgus instability at 30 degrees of knee flexion. Both were treated for combined MCL and PCL tear, the rest were stable. The average IKDC-subjective score was 93 ± 4 and the average Lysholm score was 92 ± 3. All patients were satisfied and returned to their previous level of activity. In this technique, the superficial MCL was recon- structed closer to its anatomical construct. Patients didn’t have any complaints of hardware under the skin and the need for a second surgery for hardware removal was avoided. Patients didn’t have any complaints of hardware under the skin and the need for a second surgery for hardware removal was avoided. Also reconstructing the ligaments in 2 stages helped to preserve the knee motion.

Is There a Disadvantage to Early Physical Therapy After Multiligament Surgery for Knee Dislocation? A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Multiligament knee injuries, though rare, can be profoundly disabling. Surgeons disagree about when to initiate rehabilitation after surgical reconstruction due to the conflicting priorities of postoperative stability and motion.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

(1) Does early or late initiation of physical therapy after multiligament knee surgery result in fewer postoperative manipulations? (2) Does early versus late physical therapy compromise stability postoperatively? (3) Does early initiation of physical therapy result in improved patient-reported outcomes, as measured by the Multi-ligament Quality of Life (ML-QOL) score?

METHODS

Between 2011 and 2016, 36 adults undergoing multiligament repair or reconstruction were prospectively enrolled in a randomized controlled trial and randomized 1:1 to either early rehabilitation or late rehabilitation after surgery. Eligibility included those with an injury to the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) and at least one other ligament, as well as the ability to participate in early rehabilitation. Patients who were obtunded or unable to adhere to the protocols for other reasons were excluded. Early rehabilitation consisted of initiating a standardized physical therapy protocol on postoperative day 1 involving removal of the extension splint for quadriceps activation and ROM exercises. Late rehabilitation consisted of full-time immobilization in an extension splint for 3 weeks. Following this 3-week period, both groups engaged in the same standardized physical therapy protocol. All surgical reconstructions were performed at a single center by one of two fellowship-trained sports orthopaedic surgeons, and all involved allograft Achilles tendon PCL reconstruction. When possible, hamstring autograft was used for ACL and medial collateral ligament reconstructions, whereas lateral collateral ligament and posterolateral reconstruction was performed primarily with allograft. The primary outcome was the number of patients undergoing manipulation during the first 6 months. Additional outcomes added after trial registration were patient-reported quality of life scores (ML-QOL) at 1 year and an objective assessment of laxity through a physical examination and stress radiographs at 1 year. One patient from each group was not assessed for laxity or ROM at 1 year, and one patient from each group did not complete the ML-QOL questionnaires. No patient crossover was observed.

RESULTS

With the numbers available, there was no difference in the use of knee manipulation during the first 6 months between the rehabilitation groups: 1 of 18 patients in the early group and 4 of 18 patients in the late group (p = 0.34). Similarly, there were no differences in knee ROM, stability, or patient-reported quality of life (ML-QOL) between the groups at 1 year.

CONCLUSION

With the numbers available in this study, we were unable to demonstrate a difference between early and late knee rehabilitation with regard to knee stiffness, laxity, or patient-reported quality of life outcomes. The results of this small, randomized pilot study suggest a potential role for early rehabilitation after multiligament reconstruction for knee dislocation, which should be further explored in larger multi-institutional studies.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, therapeutic study.

A Criterion Based Rehabilitation Protocol for ACL Repair with Internal Brace Augmentation

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is one of the main stabilizing structures of the knee and its rupture is a common injury in young active adults. ACL reconstruction has been the preferred operative management of an ACL rupture for several decades; however, success rates are variable. Recently, interest in arthroscopic primary repair of the ligament has increased. The repair is augmented with an Internal Brace (IB), which is an ultra-high strength suture tape that bridges the ligament. This technique protects the ligament during the healing and the ligament is encouraged to heal naturally, whilst not requiring any external braces. It acts as a stabiliser to permit early mobilization and optimise rehabilitation. As understanding of rehabilitation has progressed, there has been an increased focus on early weight-bearing and achieving full range of movement. While detailed criterion-based rehabilitation protocols exist for ACL reconstruction, this is not the case for ACL repair. The purpose of this commentary is to present a novel criterion-based rehabilitation protocol following ACL repair surgery augmented with an IB.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V.

Isolierte Verletzung des tiefen Innenbands am Kniegelenk

Isolierte Rupturen des tiefen Innenbands am Kniegelenk (dMCL) werden meist im chronischen Stadium bzw. in Zusammenhang mit einer Verletzung des oberflächlichen Innenbands beschrieben. In diesem Beitrag wird über den Fall eines 15-jährigen Patienten berichtet, welcher sich nach einem Außenrotationstrauma des Kniegelenks in der Notaufnahme vorstellte. Die weiterführende Diagnostik zeigte eine isolierte Läsion des tiefen Innenbands. Erstmaßnahmen erfolgten mit Schonung, Hochlagerung, Salbenverbänden, oraler Schmerztherapie und einer Knieorthese. Fünf Wochen nach dem initialen Trauma war der Patient beschwerdefrei. Anhand der aktuellen Literatur wird ein Therapieschema der akuten bis chronischen Läsion des dMCL diskutiert.

Controversies in acute multiligamentary knee injuries (MLKI)

Multiligament injuries of the knee (MLKI), remain an infrequent pathology especially in developed countries compared to mono-ligament lesions. In Colombia, MLKI is frequent due to the high accident rate on motorcycles. In the city of Bogota alone, about 160 motorcycle accidents have been estimated daily, being one of the cities that proportionately use this means of transport less compared to small cities. The term MLKI, include all ruptures of two or more major ligaments and therefore it has a broad spectrum of clinical presentation which creates a great challenge for the orthopedists and the surgeons envolved in this topic. The literature is rich in studies level IV but very poor in level I and level II, which generates controversies and little consensus in the diagnosis and treatment of this pathology. However there has been a gradual and better understanding of all factors involved in the treatment of MLKI that has improved the functional results of these knees in our patients, in fact we currently are more precise to achieve accurate diagnosis, evolved from not surgical approach to operate most, applying new anatomical and biomechanical concepts, with specialized and skill surgical techniques with more stable and biocompatible fixation implants, which allow in most cases to initiate an early integral rehabilitation program. Nevertheless due to the complexity and severity of the lesions, in some patients the functional results are poor. The goal of this revision is to identify the most frequent controversies in the diagnosis and treatment of MLKI, defining which of them are agreed according to what is reported in the literature and share some concepts based from the experience of more than 25 years of the senior author (MM) in the management of these injuries. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: V - Expert Opinion.

Medial collateral ligament (MCL) reconstruction results in improved medial stability: results from the Danish knee ligament reconstruction registry (DKRR)

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare outcome data after isolated and combined (MCL) plus anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction based on objective and subjective measures using data from the (DKRR). There are only a few small-sized case studies on outcomes after MCL reconstruction. MCL reconstruction was hypothesised to improve both objective and subjective outcomes.

METHODS

All patients who were registered in the DKRR between 2005 and 2016 (N = 25,281) and who underwent isolated ACL (n = 24,683), isolated MCL (n = 103) or combined MCL plus ACL (n = 495) reconstructions were retrospectively identified. Objective (valgus knee stability and sagittal knee laxity) and subjective (Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) and Tegner activity scale score) outcomes in these three cohorts were evaluated at the 1-year follow-up by comparing pre- and post-operative values.

RESULTS

Medial stability improved significantly pre- to post-operatively after both isolated MCL and combined MCL plus ACL reconstruction, with 26 (53%) and 195 (69%) of the patients, respectively, having normal valgus stability (0-2 mm laxity). Sagittal stability was similar after MCL plus ACL reconstruction and isolated ACL reconstruction (1.7 and 1.5 mm, respectively). At the 1-year follow-up, although the KOOS of the patients in the isolated MCL and combined MCL plus ACL reconstruction cohorts improved significantly, they were lower than those of the patients in the isolated ACL reconstruction cohort.

CONCLUSION

Both isolated MCL reconstruction and combined MCL plus ACL reconstruction resulted in significant and clinically relevant improvements in the subjective outcomes from pre-operative conditions to the 1-year follow-up. Valgus stability also improved significantly, with two-thirds of patients obtaining normal valgus stability after MCL reconstruction. Subjective outcomes were similar between isolated MCL reconstruction and combined MCL plus ACL reconstructions, but were poorer than isolated ACL reconstructions.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Measurement of lower limb segmental excursion using inertial sensors during single limb stance

Advances in wearable technology have afforded health scientists and clinicians the ability to quantify clinically meaningful kinematic data with performance-based outcome measures in a variety of environments. However, no method for assessing segmental excursion of the lower limb during single limb stance (SLS) with wearable technology has been described in the literature nor has its clinical meaning been explored. This study introduces a clinically friendly measure to quantify lower limb segmental excursion during SLS with inertial measurement units (IMUs) which called the region of limb stability (ROLS). The purpose of this study was to determine the concurrent validity of an IMU-based system versus an optical motion capture system and to determine the effects of knee injury on the ROLS value. Excursion areas of five healthy adults were calculated with the IMU-based system and data were compared with an optical motion capture system. There were high correlations (0.82-0.93) and no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the tested parameters between the optical- and IMU-based systems. The IMU-based method was also implemented in five Division I athletes with knee injuries to determine changes in ROLS due to the injury. The ROLS Symmetry Index value offered a higher sensitivity and specificity to assess the presence of knee impairment than the sacral IMU. Quantified lower limb segmental excursion via IMUs can make better and more precise return-to-sport decisions that would decrease the risk of re-injury.

Current Concepts and Controversies in Rehabilitation After Surgery for Multiple Ligament Knee Injury

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this manuscript is twofold: (1) to review the literature related to rehabilitation after surgery for multiple ligament knee injury (MLKI) and after isolated surgery for the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), posterolateral corner (PLC), and medial side of the knee and (2) to present a hierarchy of anatomic structures needing the most protection to guide rehabilitation.

RECENT FINDINGS

MLKIs continue to be a rare but devastating injury. Recent evidence indicates that clinicians may be providing too much protection from early weight bearing and range of motion, but an accelerated approach has not been rigorously tested. Consideration of the nature and quality of surgical procedures (repair and reconstruction) can help clinicians determine the structures needing the most protection during the rehabilitation period. The biomechanical literature and prior clinical experience can aid clinicians to better structure rehabilitation after surgery for MLKI and improve clinical outcome for patients.

Clinical outcome of primary medial collateral ligament-posteromedial corner repair with or without staged anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

INTRODUCTION

Medial collateral ligament (MCL) is a prime valgus stabilizer of the knee, and MCL tears are currently managed conservatively. However, posteromedial corner (PMC) injury along with MCL tear is not same as isolated MCL tear and the former is more serious injury and requires operative attention. However, literature is scarce about the management and outcome of PMC-MCL tear alongside anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear. The purpose of this study is to report the clinical outcome of primary repair of MCL and PMC with or without staged ACL reconstruction.

METHODS

A retrospective evaluation was performed on patients with MCL-PMC complex injury with ACL tear who underwent primary repair of MCL-PMC tear followed by rehabilitation. Further, several of them chose to undergo ACL reconstruction whereas rest opted conservative treatment for the ACL tear. A total of 35 patients of two groups [Group 1 (n=15): MCL-PMC repaired and ACL conserved; Group 2 (n=20): MCL-PMC repaired and ACL reconstructed] met the inclusion criteria with a minimum follow-up of two years. Clinical outcome measures included grade of valgus medial opening (0° extension and 30° flexion), Lysholm and International knee documentation committee (IKDC) scores, KT-1000 measurement, subjective feeling of instability, range of motion (ROM) assessment and complications.

RESULTS

While comparing group 2 versus group 1, mean Lysholm (94.6 vs. 91.06; p=0.017) and IKDC scores (86.3 vs. 77.6; p=0.011) of group 2 were significantly higher than group 1. 60% patients of group 1 complained of instability against none in the group 2 (p<0.0001). All the knees of both the groups were valgus stable with none requiring late reconstruction. The mean loss of flexion ROM in group 1 and 2 was 12° and 9° respectively which was not statistically different (p=0.41). However while considering the loss of motion, two groups did not show any significant difference in clinical scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Primary MCL-PMC repair renders the knee stable in coronal plane in both the groups and further ACL reconstruction adds on to the stability of the knee providing a superior clinical outcome. Minor knee stiffness remains a concern after primary MCL-PMC repair but without any unfavorable clinical effect.

Clinical assessment of antero-medial rotational knee laxity: a systematic review

PURPOSE

To inventory the examination methods available to assess antero-medial rotational laxity (AMRL) of the knee following medial collateral ligament injury.

METHODS

Searches were conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines and using four online databases: WEB OF SCIENCE, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and AMED. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme guidelines for Diagnostic Test Studies were used for the quality assessment of the articles.

RESULTS

A total of 2241 articles were identified from the database searches. From this, four articles were included in the final review. All were case-control studies, considered a combined ACL/MCL injury and had small study populations. Specialised equipment was required in all studies, and one needed additional imaging support before measurements could be taken. Two employed commercially available measuring equipment as part of the assessment process.

CONCLUSION

Clinical assessment of AMRL in relation to a MCL injury remains challenging. Although methods have been developed to support clinical examination, they are limited by a number of factors, including the need for additional time in the clinical environment when setting up equipment, the need for specific equipment to produce and measure rotational movement and imaging support. In addition, there are patient safety concerns from the repeated imaging. A reliable and valid clinical examination remains to be found to truly assess antero-medial rotational laxity of the knee.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

How to avoid collision between PCL and MCL femoral tunnels during a simultaneous reconstruction

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to assess the risk of femoral tunnel collisions between the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) tunnels during a simultaneous PCL and MCL reconstruction.

METHODS

Fourth generation medium and large synthetic femur bones were used. On each femur, a MCL tunnel and a PCL tunnel were reamed. The MCL tunnel was drilled at 0°, 20° and 40° of axial and coronal angulations. The PCL femoral tunnel was reamed to simulate two different tunnel directions that could be obtained through an inside-out and outside-in technique. Tunnels were filled with epoxy resin augmented with BaSO4, and a multidetector CT examination of each specimen was performed.

RESULTS

High rate of tunnel collision (62.5 %) was found when the MCL femoral tunnel was reamed with a coronal angulation of 0° and 20°. The rate of tunnel collision significantly decreased (0 %) when the MCL tunnel was reamed proximally with a coronal angulation of 40°. No differences were found between the two PCL tunnel directions in terms of tunnel collision.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study can help surgeons to better direct the femoral MCL tunnel in order to avoid a collision between femoral tunnels during a combined MCL and PCL reconstruction. In order to minimize such potential complications, the MCL tunnel should be created limiting the axial angulation and it should be drilled with a proximal angulation from 20° to 40°, depending on the medial condyle width.

Medial collateral ligament reconstruction using bone-patellar tendon-bone allograft for chronic medial knee instability combined with multi-ligament injuries: a new technique

BACKGROUND

The medial collateral ligament (MCL) is the main static stabilizer of the medial knee. The surgical treatment was recommended in cases with serious medial collateral ligament insufficiency combined with multi-ligament injuries and chronic symptomatic medial instability. Several surgical techniques have been described for the MCL reconstruction, while potential problems including donor site morbidity, complicated procedure, and high risk of femoral tunnel collision were reported. In order to minimize such potential limitations, we describe a new medial reconstruction technique for MCL injury using bone-patellar tendon-bone (BPTB) allograft.

METHODS

A longitudinal incision at the medial knee was made. The centers of femoral and tibial attachments were gained through repeated isometricity test. Then, the bone grooves were made around the femoral and tibial centers. The appropriate BPTB allograft was selected, and both ends were trimmed. The prepared bone blocks were embedded into the grooves and fixed with cancellous screws. The programmed rehabilitation exercises were performed after the operation.

RESULTS

A strong graft and bone-to-bone healing on both femoral and tibial attachment sites were obtained, and femoral tunnel collision during multi-ligament reconstruction was avoided. Satisfactory valgus and rotatory stability were gained.

CONCLUSIONS

This novel MCL reconstruction technique using BPTB allograft can be safely performed, and the clinical outcome was favorable with satisfactory valgus and rotatory stability. More cases and additional follow-up results are needed to verify the overall effect of this technique.

Surgical Techniques for the Reconstruction of Medial Collateral Ligament and Posteromedial Corner Injuries of the Knee: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

To systematically review reconstruction techniques of the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and associated medial structures of the knee (e.g., posterior oblique ligament).

METHODS

A systematic review of Medline/PubMed Database (1966 to November 2013), reference list scanning and citation searches of included articles, and manual searches of high-impact journals (2000 to July 2013) and conference proceedings (2009 to July 2013) were performed to identify publications describing MCL reconstruction techniques of the knee. Exclusion criteria included (1) MCL primary repair techniques or advancement procedures, (2) lack of clear description of MCL reconstruction technique, (3) animal models, (4) nonrelevant study design, (5) and foreign language articles without available translation.

RESULTS

After review of 4,600 references, 25 publications with 359 of 388 patients (92.5%) were isolated for analysis, including 18 single-bundle MCL and 10 double-bundle reconstruction techniques. Only 2 techniques were classified as anatomic reconstructions, and clinical and objective outcomes (n = 28; 100% <3 mm side-to-side difference [SSD]) were superior to those with nonanatomic reconstruction (n = 182; 79.1% <3 mm SSD) and tendon transfer techniques (n = 114; 52.6% <3 mm SSD).

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review demonstrated that numerous medial reconstruction techniques have been used in the treatment of isolated and combined medial knee injuries in the existent literature. Many variations exist among reconstruction techniques and may differ by graft choices, method of fixation, number of bundles, tensioning protocol, and degree of anatomic restoration of medial and posteromedial corner knee restraints. Further studies are required to better ascertain the comparative clinical outcomes with anatomic, non-anatomic, and tendon transfer techniques for medial knee reconstruction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, systematic review of level IV studies and surgical techniques.

Surgical Treatment of Acute Grade III Medial Collateral Ligament Injury Combined With Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: Anatomic Ligament Repair Versus Triangular Ligament Reconstruction

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical results of medial collateral ligament (MCL) anatomic ligament repair (ALR) and triangular ligament reconstruction (TLR) in treating acute grade III MCL injury with respect to imaging and functional results.

METHODS

Between January 2009 and October 2011, a total of 69 patients with an acute grade III MCL tear combined with an anterior cruciate ligament tear were divided into 2 groups: those who underwent ALR and those who underwent TLR. Single-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction was also performed in all patients. A radiographic stress-position imaging test was performed to evaluate excessive medial opening of the knee. In addition, the Slocum test was carried out to assess anteromedial rotatory instability before surgery and at follow-up. The subjective symptoms and functional outcomes were evaluated preoperatively and postoperatively with International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) assessment.

RESULTS

Sixty-four patients with a mean follow-up period of 34 months were included in the final analysis. The measurement results for medial opening at the last follow-up appointment decreased significantly from the pretreatment measurements and fell within the normal range, without a statistically significant difference between the 2 groups (P > .05). The overall incidence of anteromedial rotatory instability was reduced to 21.9% compared with 62.5% preoperatively. However, the incidence of anteromedial rotatory instability in the TLR group (9.4%) decreased significantly compared with that in the ALR group (34.4%) (P < .05). All patients' IKDC subjective scores significantly improved after surgery. No statistically significant difference was found between the 2 groups at the last follow-up (P > .05). The comparison of IKDC extension and flexion deficit scores between the 2 groups showed no significant differences. Eleven patients in the ALR group and 4 in the TLR group complained of medial knee pain. The comparison between the 2 groups showed no significant difference (P > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The clinical outcomes of this study showed that no major difference existed in the ALR and TLR groups based on IKDC scores and medial opening evaluations in the short-term. However, TLR offered better rotatory stability than ALR at final follow-up.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, lesser-quality randomized controlled trial.

Nonsurgical management and postoperative rehabilitation of medial instability of the knee

The medial ligaments of the knee are the most frequently injured structures of the knee joint. The decisions regarding the treatment of medial knee injuries must take into account the severity of injury to the entire knee, the chronicity of the injury, and the patient goals and activity level. The treatment and rehabilitation of the medial structures of the knee is largely reliant on the healing potential of these structures. Studies have shown that these medial, extra-articular ligaments may possess the ability to heal by both intrinsic and extrinsic properties. The goals of nonoperative treatment should include healing of the injured medial structures while controlling edema, restoring full knee motion, and preserving muscle strength. In cases of continued medial instability after an isolated grade III injury or in cases of combined multiligamentous knee injuries, the medial structures of the knee may be treated operatively with repair or reconstruction. The goals of rehabilitation following surgical intervention are the same as for nonoperative treatment; however, the progression of activity is more gradual to allow for repaired or reconstructed tissue to heal. If the objectives of early edema control, restoration of knee motion, gradual resumption of weight bearing, and return of muscle strength are followed, patients should return to full activity following medial injuries to the knee.

Radiographic landmarks for locating the femoral origin of the superficial medial collateral ligament

BACKGROUND

Little has been written about the use of radiographic landmarks for locating the origin of the superficial medial collateral ligament (sMCL). A standardized radiographic landmark for the sMCL origin using intraoperative fluoroscopic imaging may be of value in aiding the surgeon in accurate femoral tunnel placement in the setting of extensive soft tissue disruption and bony attrition.

PURPOSE

To determine a reproducible radiographic landmark that will assist in correct femoral tunnel placement in sMCL repair and reconstruction.

STUDY DESIGN

Descriptive laboratory study.

METHODS

Ten fresh-frozen unmatched human cadaveric knees were dissected, and the origin of the sMCL was exposed. A 2-mm metallic marker was then placed at the center of the femoral origin of the sMCL. True lateral fluoroscopically assisted digital radiographs were obtained of the knee with the posterior and distal femoral condyles overlapping in a standardized fashion. With the use of computer software, reference lines were drawn on the images, creating 4 quadrants. Two independent examiners performed quantitative measurements of the sMCL origin in relation to this axis and to the Blumensaat line.

RESULTS

Mean measurements showed the sMCL origin to be closely related to the intersection point of the Blumensaat line and a line drawn distally from the posterior femoral cortex on a true lateral radiograph. The sMCL origin was found at a mean point 1.6 ± 4.3 mm posterior and 4.9 ± 2.1 mm proximal to the intersection of a line paralleling the posterior femoral cortex and a line drawn perpendicular to the posterior femoral cortical line, where it intersects the Blumensaat line. In 5 of 10 specimens, the center of the sMCL origin fell precisely on the Blumensaat line. The remaining specimens had sMCL origins anterior to the Blumensaat line. The femoral origin of the sMCL was found in the proximal and posterior quadrants in 8 of 10 specimens.

CONCLUSION

With a relatively small amount of deviation, the sMCL origin can be consistently identified on a true lateral radiograph of the knee using reproducible reference lines on fluoroscopic imaging.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Accurate identification of the femoral origin of the sMCL can be accomplished by intraoperative fluoroscopic imaging. This information may be of significant benefit in repairing acute injuries and in reconstructive procedures complicated by bony attrition and soft tissue loss.

Single allograft medial collateral ligament and posterior oblique ligament reconstruction: a technique to improve valgus and rotational stability

We present a novel and simple method for single hamstring allograft MCL and PMC reconstruction, which can improve both joint valgus and external rotational stability and maximize utilization of allograft. All patients received arthroscopic evaluation through inferomedial and inferolateral knee incisions to ascertain whether there were intra-articular injuries. An 8-cm-length longitudinal incision was made from 1 cm above adductor tubercle to 5-cm proximal medial tibia joint line. The anterior tibia insertion was defined as 15 mm lateral from the medial tibia edge and 45 mm below the medial tibia joint line. The posterior tibia insertion was defined as 15 mm lateral from the medial tibia edge and 20 mm below the medial tibia joint line. A 5- or 6-mm reamer was used to drill the tibia tunnel along with guide pin, and a 6 or 7 mm drill was used to drill the femur tunnel to a depth of 25 or 30 mm until the proximal adductor tubercle. The allograft was harvested from tibia and placed into the tunnel and fixed with absorbable interference screw. All patients performed active rehabilitation exercises after the operation periodically.

Surgical treatment of subacute and chronic valgus instability in multiligament-injured knees with superficial medial collateral ligament reconstruction using Achilles allografts: a quantitative analysis with a minimum 2-year follow-up

BACKGROUND

Symptomatic medial collateral ligament (MCL) instability is rare, and it is frequently associated with multiligament injuries. Most clinical investigations have failed to clearly define the specific objective outcome measures assessing the stability of the MCL quantitatively before and after the reconstruction procedure.

PURPOSE

To quantitatively evaluate the early clinical outcomes of patients with valgus instability of knee joints who had undergone superficial MCL reconstruction using Achilles tendon allografts.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

From August 2005 to December 2010, 19 consecutive patients with MCL injuries were included in this study. The inclusion criteria were (1) a subacute or chronic MCL injury, with a time from initial injury to surgery of longer than 3 weeks, and (2) valgus laxity graded C or D according to the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC). All patients underwent superficial MCL reconstruction using Achilles tendon allografts. To evaluate the laxity of the MCL preoperatively and postoperatively, valgus stress radiographs using a Telos device were used. Other assessments included the IKDC subjective functional evaluation and Lysholm score estimation.

RESULTS

Sixteen of the 19 patients (12 men and 4 women) were available for final follow-up. The median age of the patients was 37 years (range, 19-53 years); mean body mass index (BMI) was 26.4 (range, 21.7-29.4). The mean time from injury to surgery was 15.9 months (range, 24 days to 84 months), and median follow-up period was 34 months (range, 24-67 months). The mean medial knee laxity (side-to-side difference) was 8.9 ± 3.2 mm (range, 6-15.9 mm) preoperatively and 1.1 ± 0.9 mm (range, -1.1 to 3.2 mm) postoperatively (P < .001). The preoperative mean IKDC subjective knee functional score was 49.8 ± 6.9 (range, 31-57.5), while the postoperative functional score was 84.3 ± 6.0 (range, 71.3-93.1) (P < .001). The mean Lysholm score was 69.3 ± 5.9 (range, 55-78) preoperatively and 88.6 ± 5.0 (range, 75-95) postoperatively (P < .001). There was no significant correlation between patients' BMI and the final clinical outcome scores (P = .311).

CONCLUSION

In a small set of patients with multiligament-injured knees, valgus laxity can be effectively restored through surgical management with superficial MCL reconstruction, when the other associated ligament injuries are reconstructed as well. The subjective functional results were significantly improved postoperatively at short-term follow-up.

Application of triangular vector to functionally reconstruct the medial collateral ligament with double-bundle allograft technique

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to present a novel medial collateral ligament (MCL) reconstruction technique and investigate the clinical outcomes of this surgical procedure.

METHODS

From July 2006 to June 2009, 56 patients with medial instability of the knee were treated with MCL reconstruction and followed up for 33 months on average. These patients were divided into 2 groups based on whether anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury was present: 27 patients had isolated MCL injury, whereas 29 patients had combined MCL-ACL injury. All patients underwent reconstruction of the MCL with triangular double-bundle allograft, and we evaluated International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) scores, anteromedial rotatory instability (AMRI), and excessive knee medial opening (EKMO) both preoperatively and at follow-up.

RESULTS

EKMO was significantly reduced to 2.9 mm at follow-up compared with 10.1 mm preoperatively. The incidence of AMRI was reduced to 9.4% (5 patients) compared with 67.9% (36 patients) preoperatively. Of the patients, 58.9% (33 patients) had a grade A IKDC subjective score and 35.7% (20 patients) had a grade B IKDC subjective score. Most patients had normal or nearly normal range of motion of the knee joint, whereas 4 patients (7.1%) lost more than 6° of range of motion in extension and 2 (3.6%) lost more than 25° in flexion. In 47 patients (83.9%) the symptoms were graded as normal or nearly normal according to IKDC symptom scores. No significant differences in IKDC subjective score, IKDC symptom score, flexion deficit score, AMRI, and EKMO were found between the isolated MCL injury group and the MCL-ACL injury group; however, a significant difference was found in knee extension deficit between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We have presented a new technique for reconstruction of the MCL with a triangular shape. This technique improved both valgus and rotational stability at short-term outcome. The clinical outcomes using IKDC evaluation indicate that no major difference exists in isolated MCL injury and combined MCL-ACL injury treated with this new technique.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, therapeutic case series.

Current concepts for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a criterion-based rehabilitation progression

The management of patients after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction should be evidence based. Since our original published guidelines in 1996, successful outcomes have been consistently achieved with the rehabilitation principles of early weight bearing, using a combination of weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing exercise focused on quadriceps and lower extremity strength, and meeting specific objective requirements for return to activity. As rehabilitative evidence and surgical technology and procedures have progressed, the original guidelines should be revisited to ensure that the most up-to-date evidence is guiding rehabilitative care. Emerging evidence on rehabilitative interventions and advancements in concomitant surgeries, including those addressing chondral and meniscal injuries, continues to grow and greatly affect the rehabilitative care of patients with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. The aim of this article is to update previously published rehabilitation guidelines, using the most recent research to reflect the most current evidence for management of patients after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. The focus will be on current concepts in rehabilitation interventions and modifications needed for concomitant surgery and pathology.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapy, level 5.

Neuromuscular recovery after medial collateral ligament disruption and eccentric rehabilitation program

PURPOSE

Medial collateral ligament (MCL) rupture of the knee joint frequently occurs during sport activities. However, the optimal rehabilitation strategy after such lesion is unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of progressive eccentric rehabilitation program on neuromuscular deficits induced by MCL transection.

METHODS

Rats were randomized as follows: (i) control group (C, n = 10) without any surgery; (ii) lesion groups in which neuromuscular measurements were made 1 (L1, n = 10) and 3 wk (L3, n = 9) after MCL transection by a 15- to 20-min surgery (this group was designed to determine changes induced by the MCL transection); and (iii) eccentric group (ECC, n = 7) in which rats performed a progressive 2-wk eccentric rehabilitation program beginning 1 wk after MCL transection surgery. Dynamic functional assessments were performed at weeks 1 and 3 after the MCL transection by measuring the maximal and minimal knee angles during the stance phase of the gait cycle. Neuromuscular measurements included 1) modulation of H-reflex in response to a 10-mM KCl injection, 2) analysis of the twitch relaxation properties of the quadriceps muscle, and 3) recording of metabosensitive and mechanosensitive afferents activity in response to chemical injections and to tendon patellar vibrations, respectively.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that H-reflex modulation induced by metabosensitive afferents was disturbed by MCL transection without any recovery despite rehabilitation program. Responses of both metabosensitive and mechanosensitive muscle afferents, as well as the muscle relaxation properties, were fully recovered after the eccentric rehabilitation program.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results directly indicated an influence of progressive eccentric program on muscle afferents response after MCL section but apparently not for spinal reflex modulation.

Healing of a painful intervertebral disc should not be confused with reversing disc degeneration: implications for physical therapies for discogenic back pain

BACKGROUND

Much is known about intervertebral disc degeneration, but little effort has been made to relate this information to the clinical problem of discogenic back pain, and how it might be treated.

METHODS

We re-interpret the scientific literature in order to provide a rationale for physical therapy treatments for discogenic back pain.

INTERPRETATION

Intervertebral discs deteriorate over many years, from the nucleus outwards, to an extent that is influenced by genetic inheritance and metabolite transport. Age-related deterioration can be accelerated by physical disruption, which leads to disc "degeneration" or prolapse. Degeneration most often affects the lower lumbar discs, which are loaded most severely, and it is often painful because nerves in the peripheral anulus or vertebral endplate can be sensitised by inflammatory-like changes arising from contact with blood or displaced nucleus pulposus. Surgically-removed human discs show an active inflammatory process proceeding from the outside-in, and animal studies confirm that effective healing occurs only in the outer anulus and endplate, where cell density and metabolite transport are greatest. Healing of the disc periphery has the potential to relieve discogenic pain, by re-establishing a physical barrier between nucleus pulposus and nerves, and reducing inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Physical therapies should aim to promote healing in the disc periphery, by stimulating cells, boosting metabolite transport, and preventing adhesions and re-injury. Such an approach has the potential to accelerate pain relief in the disc periphery, even if it fails to reverse age-related degenerative changes in the nucleus.

Aquatic versus land-based exercises as early functional rehabilitation for elite athletes with acute lower extremity ligament injury: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE

To compare outcomes between aquatic and land-based exercises during early-phase recovery from acute lower extremity ligament injuries in elite athletes.

DESIGN

A single-blinded, covariate adaptive randomized, controlled study.

SETTING

National training center for elite athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-two athletes with isolated grade I or II ligament injury in ankles or knees were randomized into either an aquatic or land-based exercise group.

INTERVENTIONS

Early functional rehabilitation program (ranging, strengthening, proprioceptive training, and functional exercises) was performed in both groups. All exercises were identical except for the training environment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Data were collected at baseline and at 2 and 4 weeks using a visual analog scale (VAS) for pain; static stability (overall stability index [OSI] level 5 and 3); dynamic stability (TCT), and percentage single-limb support time (%SLST).

RESULTS

Both groups showed decreases in VAS, OSI 5 and 3, and TCT, with a concomitant increase in %SLST at 2 and 4 weeks (P < .05). No significant differences were detected between the 2 groups in any of the outcome measures. However, the line graphs for VAS, OSI 3, TCT, and %SLST in the aquatic exercise group were steeper than those in the land-based exercise group indicating significant group by time interactions (P < .05). These data indicate that the aquatic exercise group improved more rapidly than the land-based exercise group.

CONCLUSIONS

For elite athletes with acute ligament sprains in the lower limb, aquatic exercises may provide advantages over standard land-based therapy for rapid return to athletic activities. Consequently, aquatic exercise could be recommended for the initial phase of a rehabilitation program.

Medial collateral ligament injuries of the knee: current treatment concepts

The medial collateral ligament is one of the most commonly injured ligaments of the knee. Most injuries result from a valgus force on the knee. The increased participation in football, ice hockey, and skiing has all contributed to the increased frequency of MCL injuries. Prophylactic knee bracing in contact sports may prevent injury; however, performance may suffer. The majority of patients who sustain an MCL injury will achieve their pre-injury activity level with non-operative treatment alone; however, those with combined ligamentous injuries may require acute operative care. Accurate characterization of each aspect of the injury will help to determine the optimum treatment plan.

Injuries to the medial collateral ligament and associated medial structures of the knee

*The superficial medial collateral ligament and other medial knee stabilizers-i.e., the deep medial collateral ligament and the posterior oblique ligament-are the most commonly injured ligamentous structures of the knee. *The main structures of the medial aspect of the knee are the proximal and distal divisions of the superficial medial collateral ligament, the meniscofemoral and meniscotibial divisions of the deep medial collateral ligament, and the posterior oblique ligament. *Physical examination is the initial method of choice for the diagnosis of medial knee injuries through the application of a valgus load both at full knee extension and between 20 degrees and 30 degrees of knee flexion. *Because nonoperative treatment has a favorable outcome, there is a consensus that it should be the first step in the management of acute isolated grade-III injuries of the medial collateral ligament or such injuries combined with an anterior cruciate ligament tear. *If operative treatment is required, an anatomic repair or reconstruction is recommended.

Anatomical reconstruction of the medial collateral ligament and posteromedial corner of the knee in patients with chronic medial collateral ligament instability

BACKGROUND

In cases of multiple ligament injury or severe medial collateral ligament (MCL) lesion, nonoperative treatment of the MCL lesion may lead to chronic valgus instability or rotatory instability.

HYPOTHESIS

In a retrospective case series after isolated and combined MCL reconstructions using a novel MCL reconstruction technique that addresses both the MCL and the posteromedial corner, an acceptable clinical outcome is expected 2 years after MCL reconstruction.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

From July 2002 to December 2005, 61 patients with grade 3 or 4 medial instability were treated with MCL reconstruction. Median age was 33 years (range, 14-62). Thirteen underwent isolated MCL reconstructions, 34 had combined MCL and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction, and 14 had multiple ligament reconstructions. All patients had reconstruction of the medial collateral and the posteromedial complex using ipsilateral semitendinosus autografts. Fifty patients were available for follow-up more than 24 months postoperatively and were examined by an independent observer using objective International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) measures and subjective Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS).

RESULTS

At follow-up, medial stability according to the IKDC score showed 98% normal or nearly normal (grade A or B), and for overall IKDC score, patients improved from 5% with grade A or B preoperatively to 74% with grade A or B at follow-up. There were 91% who were satisfied or very satisfied with the result; 88% would go through surgery again. The KOOS improved primarily for sports and quality of life subscales with approximately 10-point improvements.

CONCLUSION

Acceptable clinical results with the MCL reconstruction technique were achieved in patients suffering from chronic valgus instability.

Gait synchronized force modulation during the stance period of one limb achieved by an active partial body weight support system

Our purpose was to demonstrate the ability of an actively controlled partial body weight support (PBWS) system to provide gait synchronized support during the stance period of a single lower extremity while examining the affect of such a support condition on gait asymmetry. Using an instrumented treadmill and a motion capture system, we compared gait parameters of twelve healthy elderly subjects (age 65-80 years) during unsupported walking to those while walking with 20% body weight support provided during only the stance period of the right limb. Specifically, we examined peak three-dimensional ground reaction force (GRF) data and the symmetry of lower extremity sagittal plane joint angles and of time and distance parameters. A reduction in all three GRF components was observed for the supported limb during modulated support. Reductions observed in the vertical GRF were comparable to the desired 20% support level. Additionally, GRF components examined for the unsupported limb during modulated support were consistently similar to those measured during unsupported walking. Modulated support caused statistically significant increases in asymmetry for knee flexion during stance (increased 5.9%), hip flexion during late swing (increased 9.1%), and the duration of single limb support (increased 2.8%). However, the observed increases were similar or considerably less than the natural variability in the asymmetry of these parameters during unsupported walking. The ability of the active PBWS device to provide unilateral support may offer new and possibly improved applications of PBWS rehabilitation for patients with unilateral walking deficits such as hemiparesis or orthopaedic injury.

Combining therapeutic laser and herbal remedy for treating ligament injury: an ultrastructural morphological study

OBJECTIVE

We examined the ultrastructural morphology (number of collagen fibrils, mean and mass-averaged diameter) of isolated and combined treatments of a therapeutic laser and herbs for medial collateral ligament (MCL) injury in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-eight rats, divided into seven groups: laser (L), herb (H), laser + herb (LH), laser control (LC), herb control (HC), laser sham (LS) and herb sham (HS), were studied. Right MCL of groups L, H, LH, LC and HC were transected, while that of LS and HS remained intact. Group L received 9 treatment sessions of GaAlAs laser with a dosage of 3.5 Jcm(-2); group H received herbal plaster treatment; groups LH had combined treatments of laser and herb; group LC had placebo laser; group LS had no treatment; groups HC and HS received only bandage without herb. All MCLs were analyzed using transmission electron microscopy at 3 weeks.

RESULTS

Differences (p < 0.05) existed in mean fibril diameters among groups. Core mass-averaged diameters of groups L and H were larger than the control groups (LC and HC). Fibril diameter of group LH (combined treatment) was even larger and approaching that of the intact MCL.

CONCLUSION

Combined therapeutic laser and herbal treatment hastened collagen fibril maturation in MCL repair.