Prognostic significance of matrix metalloproteinase 2 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 expression in prostate cancer

Biomarkers of minimal residual disease and treatment

Minimal residual disease (MRD) has been defined as a very small numbers of cancer cells that remain in the body after curative treatment. Its presence or absence will ultimately determine prognosis. With the introduction of new technologies the presence of MRD in patients with solid tumours can be detected and characterized. As MRD predicts future relapse, be it early or late treatment failure, in an otherwise asymptomatic patient its treatment and when to start treatment remains to be determined. Thus the concepts of personalized medicine using different biomarkers to classify the biological properties of MRD maybe come possible. Based on this determinations it may be possible to use targeted therapies rather than all patients with the same type of cancer receiving a standard treatment. However, it is important to understand the limitations of the different technologies, what these techniques are detecting and how they may help in the treatment of patients with cancer. The majority of published studies are in patients with metastatic cancer and there are few reports in patients with MRD. In this chapter the concept of MRD, the methods used to detect it and what treatments may be effective based on the biological characteristics of the tumour cells as determined by different biomarkers is reviewed. MRD depends on the phenotypic properties of the tumour cells to survive in their new environment and the anti-tumour immune response. This is a dynamic process and changes with time in the wake of immunosuppression caused by the tumour cells and/or the effects of treatment to select resistant tumour cells. With the use of biomarkers to typify the characteristics of MRD and the development of new drugs a personalized treatment can be designed rather than all patients given the same treatment. Patients who are initially negative for MRD may not require further treatment with liquid biopsies used to monitor the patients during follow-up in order to detect those patients who may become MRD positive. The liquid biopsy used during the follow up of MRD positive patients can be used to detect changes in the biological properties of the tumour cells and thus may need treatment changes to overcome tumour cell resistance.

Metalloproteinase 9 immunostaining profile is positively correlated with tumor grade, extraprostatic extension and biochemical recurrence in prostate cancer

Metastasis is the main problem in the treatment of prostate cancer (PCa), and for it to occur, proteolytic enzymes must remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding the tumor. The most important group of enzymes with this action include the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which act on various substrates cleaving ECM components. The present study aimed to evaluate the protein immunostaining profiles of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and 9 (MMP-9) in PCa Brazilian patients using the indirect immunohistochemical methodology. The tissue samples (n = 178), 60 from malignant tumor, 58 from adjacent non-tumor, and 60 from ECM, were evaluated according to the immunostaining intensity. The malignant tumor cytoplasmic MMP-2 immunostaining was more intense than in ECM (p = 0.001), but it did not correlate with any clinical-pathological parameter. The MMP-9 staining was similar in tumor cytoplasm, adjacent non-tumor cytoplasm and ECM, but showed significant positive correlations with ISUP grade (p = 0.044; Tau=0.249), extraprostatic extension (p = 0.025; Tau=0.309), and biochemical recurrence (p = 0.048; Tau=0.306). A significant positive correlation was also observed between MMP-2 and MMP-9 in all cell compartments analyzed. Although further research is warranted to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying these observations, our findings suggest MMP-9 as a promising candidate marker for tissue invasion that could be used in predicting the progression and prognosis of PCa.

The Contribution of Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-2 Genotypes to Breast Cancer Risk in Taiwan

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) is an endogenous inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and is highly expressed in breast cancer (BC) cases at diagnosis. However, the genetic investigations for the association of TIMP-2 genotypes with BC risk are rather limited. In this study, contribution of TIMP-2 rs8179090, rs4789936, rs2009196 and rs7342880 genotypes to BC risk was examined among Taiwan's BC population. TIMP-2 genotypic profiles were revealed among 1232 BC cases and 1232 controls about their contribution to BC using a PCR-based RFLP methodology. The TIMP-2 rs8179090 homozygous variant CC genotype was significantly higher in BC cases than controls (odds ratio (OR) = 2.76, 95% confidence interval (95%CI) = 1.78-4.28, p = 0.0001). Allelic analysis showed that C allele carriers have increased risk for BC (OR = 1.39, 95%CI = 1.20-1.62, p = 0.0001). Genotypic together with allelic analysis showed that TIMP-2 rs4789936, rs2009196 or rs7342880 were not associated with BC risk. Stratification analysis showed that TIMP-2 rs8179090 genotypes were significantly associated with BC risk among younger (≤55) aged women, not among those of an elder (>55) age. Last, rs8179090 genotypes were also associated with triple negative BC. This study sheds light into the etiology of BC in Taiwanese women. Rs8179090 may be incorporated into polygenic risk scores and risk prediction models, which could aid in stratifying individuals for targeted breast cancer screening.

Relation of salivary MMP-8 with oral submucous fibrosis and oral squamous cell carcinoma: a cross sectional analytical study

OBJECTIVES

We aim to evaluate salivary matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-8) levels in oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) for the purpose of diagnosis at the early stage via non-invasive method.

SETTING

The study was multicentre, carried out at a tertiary care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan.

PARTICIPANTS

A total 60 participants of any age, sex and ethnicity were randomly selected for the purpose of this study. Patients demonstrating clinical evidence of OSF and biopsy-proven cases of OSCC were included. Patients with indeterminate histopathological report, immunodeficiency, autoimmune disorder, chronic medical and periodontal disease (periodontal depth greater than 5 mm) and individuals with interincisal mouth opening greater than 35 mm were excluded from the study.

INTERVENTIONS

Salivary MMP-8 levels were observed in OSF, healthy and OSCC groups by using ELISA. One way analysis of variance was applied to establish whether MMP-8 levels of disease-free individuals and patients suffering from OSF and OSCC differed from each other.

RESULTS

Statistically significant difference in salivary MMP-8 expression in diseased and control group was observed. MMP-8 levels in OSCC (0.64 ng/mL) and OSF (0.66 ng/mL) were underexpressed as compared with healthy participants (7.9 ng/mL).

CONCLUSION

MMP-8 levels were underexpressed in OSCC and OSF patients as compared with controls, which imply that MMP-8 level has an inverse relation with OSCC and OSF.

Chlorotoxin and Lung Cancer: A Targeting Perspective for Drug Delivery

In the generational evolution of nano-based drug delivery carriers, active targeting has been a major milestone for improved and selective drug accumulation in tissues and cell types beyond the existing passive targeting capabilities. Among the various active targeting moieties, chlorotoxin, a peptide extracted from scorpions, demonstrated promising tumor cell accumulation and selection. With lung cancer being among the leading diagnoses of cancer-related deaths in both men and women, novel therapeutic methodologies utilizing nanotechnology for drug delivery emerged. Given chlorotoxin's promising biological activity, we explore its potential against lung cancer and its utilization for active targeting against this cancer's tumor cells. Our analysis indicates that despite the extensive chlorotoxin's research against glioblastoma, lung cancer research with the molecule has been limited, despite some promising early results.

Menin Enhances Androgen Receptor-Independent Proliferation and Migration of Prostate Cancer Cells

The androgen receptor (AR) is an important therapeutic target for treating prostate cancer (PCa). Moreover, there is an increasing need for understanding the AR-independent progression of tumor cells such as neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC). Menin, which is encoded by multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), serves as a direct link between AR and the mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) complex in PCa development by activating AR target genes through histone H3 lysine 4 methylation. Although menin is a critical component of AR signaling, its tumorigenic role in AR-independent PCa cells remains unknown. Here, we compared the role of menin in AR-positive and AR-negative PCa cells via RNAi-mediated or pharmacological inhibition of menin. We demonstrated that menin was involved in tumor cell growth and metastasis in PCa cells with low or deficient levels of AR. The inhibition of menin significantly diminished the growth of PCa cells and induced apoptosis, regardless of the presence of AR. Additionally, transcriptome analysis showed that the expression of many metastasis-associated genes was perturbed by menin inhibition in AR-negative DU145 cells. Furthermore, wound-healing assay results showed that menin promoted cell migration in AR-independent cellular contexts. Overall, these findings suggest a critical function of menin in tumorigenesis and provide a rationale for drug development against menin toward targeting high-risk metastatic PCa, especially those independent of AR.

The paradoxical role of matrix metalloproteinase-11 in cancer

The microenvironment surrounding the tumor affects biological processes, such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion. Therefore, the ability to change these environments is an important attribute for tumor cells to obtain specific functions necessary for growth and metastasis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic metalloenzymes that facilitate protease-dependent tumor progression by degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, releasing cytokines, growth factors, and other cell surface molecules. As one of the most widely studied MMPs, MMP-11 is an important protease that is expressed in cancer cells, stromal cells, and the adjacent microenvironment. MMP-11 has a dual effect on tumors. On one hand, MMP-11 promotes tumor development by inhibiting apoptosis and promoting the migration and invasion of cancer cells in the early stage. On the other hand, in animal models, MMP-11 has a protective effect on tumor growth and metastasis at an advanced stage. Based on current findings regarding the importance of MMP-11 in altering the tumor microenvironment, there is a need to further understand how stromal cells and the ECM regulate tumor progression, which may result in the re-examination of MMPs as drug targets for cancer and other diseases. In this review, we summarize the dual role of MMP-11 in cancer and its potential clinical significance.

The Role of the Metzincin Superfamily in Prostate Cancer Progression: A Systematic-Like Review

Prostate cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related morbidity in men. Potentially important regulators of prostate cancer progression are members of the metzincin superfamily of proteases, principally through their regulation of the extracellular matrix. It is therefore timely to review the role of the metzincin superfamily in prostate cancer and its progression to better understand their involvement in this disease. A systematic-like search strategy was conducted. Articles that investigated the roles of members of the metzincin superfamily and their key regulators in prostate cancer were included. The extracted articles were synthesized and data presented in tabular and narrative forms. Two hundred and five studies met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 138 investigated the role of the Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) subgroup, 34 the Membrane-Tethered Matrix Metalloproteinase (MT-MMP) subgroup, 22 the A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase (ADAM) subgroup, 8 the A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with Thrombospondin Motifs (ADAMTS) subgroup and 53 the Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases (TIMP) family of regulators, noting that several studies investigated multiple family members. There was clear evidence that specific members of the metzincin superfamily are involved in prostate cancer progression, which can be either in a positive or negative manner. However, further understanding of their mechanisms of action and how they may be used as prognostic indicators or molecular targets is required.

The expression of matrix-metalloproteinase-2 in bone marrow micro-metastasis is associated with the presence of circulating prostate cells and a worse prognosis in men treated with radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer

OBJECTIVE

The expression of matrix-metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in the primary tumor is associated with a worse prognosis but little is known at this time regarding the expression in micro-metastasis, the association with circulating prostate cells (CPCs), and outcome.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was a prospective study of men undergoing radical prostatectomy. Bone marrow and blood samples were taken at one month after surgery. Micro-metastasis and CPCs were identified using immunocytochemistry with anti-prostate specific-antigen and MMP-2 expression determined with anti-MMP-2. Pathological stage, Gleason score, and time to biochemical failure were recorded; meanwhile, Kaplan-Meier biochemical failure-free survival and restricted mean biochemical failure-free survival times for 10 years were determined.

RESULTS

A total of 282 men participated, 54 (19%) of whom had micro-metastasis but not CPCs (group B) and 88 (31%) of whom had micro-metastasis and CPCs (group C). Men in group C had a higher frequency of MMP-2 expressing micro-metastasis at 63% versus 12% (p<0.001), and MMP-2 expression in bone marrow micro-metastasis was associated with a higher Gleason score (p<0.05) as well as a higher frequency of and shorter time to treatment failure. Also, a 10-year Kaplan-Meier biochemical failure-free survival rate of 0% versus 7.7% (MMP-2 positive versus negative) and a mean time to biochemical failure of 2.6 versus 4.0 years were recorded.

CONCLUSION

The expression of MMP-2 in bone marrow micro-metastasis is associated with a higher Gleason score, the presence of CPCs, and a higher frequency of and shorter time to failure and could be clinically useful for identifying men at high risk of treatment failure.

Comparative analysis of the expression of metalloproteases (MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-11 and MMP-13) and the tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease 3 (TIMP-3) between previous negative biopsies and radical prostatectomies

Metalloproteases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease-3 (TIMP-3) have been associated to the risk of having cancer and tumor aggressiveness. When facing the difficulties of prostate cancer diagnosis, the expression of MMPs and TIMP-3 in negative biopsies could be helpful to evaluate a diagnostic suspicion. Our objective is to carry out a comparative study of the expression of MMPs and TIMP-3 in previous negative biopsies and radical prostatectomies (RP).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Retrospective analysis of a hospital-based cohort including 21 patients with suspicion of prostate carcinoma, whose expressions of MMP-2, 9, 11 and 13 and TIMP-3 were evaluated by immunohistochemistry in the tumor area from previous negative biopsies and RP.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemical staining values (Score) for MMPs (-11 and -13) and TIMP-3 showed no significant differences when comparing the areas of negative biopsies where tumors subsequently developed with those of the RP. However, we did observe a significant difference in the increased expression of MMP-2 (P=.002) and MMP-9 (P=.001) in the tumor area of the RP with respect to the corresponding area of the previous negative biopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate a higher overall expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in the tumor area of the RP compared to the corresponding areas of the negative previous biopsy, which seems to be associated to the process of malignant transformation.

Extensive serum biomarker analysis in patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma

Lung cancer is a common malignant disease, nearly 2.09 million new patients occurred last year. Approximately 85% of the patients are classified as non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). It is therefore important to identify new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for the early detection of this disease. The presented study identifies biomarkers in the serum of NSCLC patients. The expression of 274 cytokines was measured by a novel antibody array methodology and ELISA was applied to validate the array results. The levels of MIP-1 α, IL-8, MIP-1 β, Resistin, GDF-15, HGF, CA125, FLRG, VCAM-1, DKK-3, sTNF-R1, CTACK, Acrp30, CXCL-16 and LYVE-1 were significantly higher in serum from NSCLC patients, while the level of TIMP-2 and IGFBP-6 were lower. More importantly, the validation supported the result of the antibody array. The result of the antibody array indicates that these cytokines might be novel auxiliary biomarkers in the diagnosis and prognosis of NSCLC.

Differential gene methylation patterns in cancerous and non‑cancerous cells

Large-scale projects, such as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Human Epigenome Project (HEP) and Human Epigenome Atlas (HEA), provide an insight into DNA methylation and histone modification markers. Changes in the epigenome significantly contribute to the initiation and progression of cancer. The goal of the present study was to characterize the prostate cancer malignant transformation model using the CpG island methylation pattern. The Human Prostate Cancer EpiTect Methyl II Signature PCR Array was used to evaluate the methylation status of 22 genes in prostate cancer cell lines: PC3, PC3M, PC3MPro4 and PC3MLN4, each representing different metastatic potential in vivo. Subsequently, it was ascertained whether DNA methylation plays a role in the expression of these genes in prostate cancer cells. Hypermethylation of APC, DKK3, GPX3, GSTP1, MGMT, PTGS2, RASSF1, TIMP2 and TNFRSF10D resulted in downregulation of their expression in prostate cancer cell lines as compared to WT fibroblasts. Mining of the TCGA data deposited in the MetHC database found increases in the methylation status of these 9 genes in prostate cancer patients, further supporting the role of methylation in altering the expression of these genes in prostate cancer. Future studies are warranted to investigate the role of these proteins in prostate cancer development.

ZIP9 but not the androgen receptor mediates testosterone-induced migratory activity of metastatic prostate cancer cells

LNCaP cells are derived from a metastatic lesion of human prostate adenocarcinoma. They express the classical androgen receptor (AR) and ZIP9, a Zn²⁺ transporter that also binds testosterone and mediates signaling by interacting with G-proteins. Our results show that LNCaP cells respond to testosterone by mobilizing their migratory machinery. Their exposure to testosterone triggers the formation of lamellipodia, reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at Tyr925 and of paxillin at Tyr118, expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), and cell migration. Silencing ZIP9 expression by means of siRNA does not affect the responsiveness of the classical AR to testosterone; however, it prevents all of the testosterone effects described above: formation of lamellipodia cannot be induced, stimulation of FAK or paxillin phosphorylation or MMP-2 expression is prevented, and cell migration does not take place in the absence of ZIP9. The data presented show that testosterone/ZIP9 interactions might have not only physiological but also pathophysiological relevance. The fact that the migratory machinery of a metastatic prostate cancer cell line is activated exclusively through testosterone/ZIP9 and not through testosterone/AR interactions suggests that targeting specific inhibition of testosterone/ZIP9-mediated events might help in developing new therapeutic strategies against androgen-induced progression of prostate cancer.

Minimal residual disease in prostate cancer patients after primary treatment: theoretical considerations, evidence and possible use in clinical management

Minimal residual disease is that not detected by conventional imaging studies and clinically the patient remains disease free. However, with time these dormant cells will awaken and disease progression occurs, resulting in clinically and radiological detectable metastatic disease. This review addresses the concept of tumor cell dissemination from the primary tumor, the micrometastatic niche and tumor cell survival and finally the clinical utility of detecting and characterizing these tumor cells in order to guide management decisions in treating patients with prostate cancer.

The Air Sac Primordium of Drosophila: A Model for Invasive Development

The acquisition of invasive properties preceding tumor metastasis is critical for cancer progression. This phenomenon may result from mutagenic disruption of typical cell function, but recent evidence suggests that cancer cells frequently co-opt normal developmental programs to facilitate invasion as well. The signaling cascades that have been implicated present an obstacle to identifying effective therapeutic targets because of their complex nature and modulatory capacity through crosstalk with other pathways. Substantial efforts have been made to study invasive behavior during organogenesis in several organisms, but another model found in Drosophilamelanogaster has not been thoroughly explored. The air sac primordium (ASP) appears to be a suitable candidate for investigating the genes and morphogens required for invasion due to the distinct overlap in the events that occur during its normal growth and the development of metastatic tumor cells. Among these events are the conversion of larval cells in the trachea into a population of mitotically active cells, reduced cell–cell contact along the leading edge of the ASP, and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) that surrounds the structure. Here, we summarize the development of ASPs and invasive behavior observed therein.

Extensive serum biomarker analysis in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a fast-growing cancer characterized by high occurrences of nodal and distant metastases and poor prognosis. It is therefore important to identify new serum biomarkers for the early diagnosis and prognostic prediction of this disease. The present study identifies biomarkers in NPC patient serum using a solid-phase antibody array detecting the expression profiles of 174 cytokines in a single experiment. ELISA was performed to validate the array results. The levels of TIMP-2, SELL, CCL24, MMP-1, MMP-3, IGF-I and IL-8 were significantly higher in serum from NPC patients, while the levels of MSP-alpha and HCC-4 were lower. Furthermore, the validation results were identical to those obtained from the antibody array. These results indicate that these cytokines might serve as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognostic prediction of NPC.

Clinicopathologic and Prognostic Significance of Metalloproteinase Tissue Inhibitor-2 Promoters in Tunisian Colorectal Cancer: A Case-Control Study

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) appear to affect many aspects of cancer biology, playing a crucial role in cell signaling by regulating cell growth, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and genomic instability. In the present study, we investigate whether TIMP-2 SNP, TIMP-2 mRNAs, and TIMP-2 protein is associated with susceptibility to colorectal cancer (CRC) in Tunisian population. Taqman and DNA sequencing techniques were used for genotyping, TIMP-2 expression of each genotype was analyzed using semiquantitative RT-PCR and TIMP-2 protein expression was analyzed using immunohistochemistry staining. Our results showed that significantly elevated CRC risk was found in individuals with CC genotype (odds ratio 1.959; 95% confidence interval, 1.055-3.637). Moreover TIMP-2 mRNA expression in the colorectal cell carcinomas was significantly higher compared with the normal colorectal tissue (0.487±0.015 vs. 0.210±0.013) (P<0.05). In addition, serum levels of TIMP-2 were significantly lower in CRC patients than in adenoma patients (P=0.01) and healthy controls (P=0.003). Serum levels of TIMP-2 correlated significantly with tumor stage and TNM stage and were the lowest in CRC patients with stage D,T4,(N1,N2,N3),M(+). In conclusion, our study demonstrate for the first time the distribution and the clinical significance of TIMP-2 promoter polymorphisms, mRNA, protein expression, and serum level in CRC Tunisian patients suggesting that the genotyping and serum level of TIMP-2 as potential markers for susceptibility to CRC will allow a precise and early identification of individuals at high risk and will aid the design of therapeutic modalities and evaluation of treatment outcome.

Matrix-metalloproteinases as targets for controlled delivery in cancer: An analysis of upregulation and expression

While commonly known for degradation of the extracellular matrix, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) exhibit broad potential for use in targeting of bioactive and imaging agents in cancer treatment. MMPs are upregulated at all stages of expression in cancers. A comprehensive analysis of published literature on expression of all MMP subtypes at the genetic, protein, and activity levels in normal and diseased tissues indicate targeting applicability in a variety of cancers. This expression significantly increases at advanced cancer stages, providing an improved opportunity for controlled release in higher-stage patients. Since MMPs are integral at every stage of metastasis, MMP roles in cancer are discussed with a focus on MMP distribution and mobility within cells and tumors for cancer targeting applications. Several strategies for MMP utilization in targeting - such as matrix degradation, MMP cleavage, MMP binding, and MMP-induced environmental changes - are addressed.

Thrombospondin-2 promotes prostate cancer bone metastasis by the up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 through down-regulating miR-376c expression

Background

Thrombospondin-2 (TSP-2) is a secreted matricellular glycoprotein that is found to mediate cell-to-extracellular matrix attachment and participates in many physiological and pathological processes. The expression profile of TSP-2 on tumors is controversial, and it up-regulates in some cancers, whereas it down-regulates in others, suggesting that the functional role of TSP-2 on tumors is still uncertain.

Methods

The expression of TSP-2 on prostate cancer progression was determined in the tissue array by the immunohistochemistry. The molecular mechanism of TSP-2 on prostate cancer (PCa) metastasis was investigated through pharmaceutical inhibitors, siRNAs, and miRNAs analyses. The role of TSP-2 on PCa metastasis in vivo was verified through xenograft in vivo imaging system.

Results

Based on the gene expression omnibus database and immunohistochemistry, we found that TSP-2 increased with the progression of PCa, especially in metastatic PCa and is correlated with the matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) expression. Additionally, through binding to CD36 and integrin α_νβ₃, TSP-2 increased cell migration and MMP-2 expression. With inhibition of p38, ERK, and JNK, the TSP-2-induced cell migration and MMP-2 expression were abolished, indicating that the TSP-2’s effect on PCa is MAPK dependent. Moreover, the microRNA-376c (miR-376c) was significantly decreased by the TSP-2 treatment. Furthermore, the TSP-2-induced MMP-2 expression and the subsequent cell motility were suppressed upon miR-376c mimic stimulation. On the other hand, the animal studies revealed that the bone metastasis was abolished when TSP-2 was stably knocked down in PCa cells.

Conclusions

Taken together, our results indicate that TSP-2 enhances the migration of PCa cells by increasing MMP-2 expression through down-regulation of miR-376c expression. Therefore, TSP-2 may represent a promising new target for treating PCa.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13045-017-0390-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Differential expression of Low density lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein 1 (LRP-1) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in prostate gland: From normal to malignant lesions

BACKGROUND

Metalloproteinases (MMPs) are relevant modulators of inflammation, tumor microenvironment, cancer invasion and metastasis. They can be regulated by the Low density lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein 1 (LRP-1), a receptor reported to mediate the clearance of lipoproteins, extracellular matrix (ECM) macromolecules and proteinases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression of LRP-1, MMP-2 and MMP-9 across various grades of prostatic diseases as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), BPH plus prostatitis (BPH+P), high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) and prostate cancer (PCa).

METHODS

LRP-1 was analyzed using immunohistochemistry and MMPs proteolytic activity by zymography in prostate tissues with different prostatic diseases.

RESULTS

LRP-1 was detected in epithelial cells in BPH (16/18), BPH+P (21/21) and HGPIN (6/6), with a staining intensity of 1+, 1+/2+ and 3+, respectively. In PCa, LRP-1 was absent in 19/27 samples while a low expression was observed in 8/27 biopsies. MMP-9 activity was higher and statistically significant in PCa than in BPH (p≤0.01).

CONCLUSION

Considering that LRP-1, by mediating the clearance of MMPs, is involved in the regulation of ECM remodeling and cell migration, we conclude that a decreased expression of LRP-1 could be involved with the increasing activity of MMPs shown in cancers.

The Impact of MMP-2 and Its Specific Inhibitor TIMP-2 Expression on the WHO Grade and Prognosis of Gliomas in Chinese Population: a Meta-Analysis

So far, the prognostic value of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2) expressions in patients with gliomas has been widely reported, especially in China. But, the results were inconsistent. Thus, we conducted a meta-analysis to determine the correlation of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 expressions with the prognosis of patients with gliomas. Identical search strategies were used to search relevant literature in electronic databases updated to May 1, 2015, and odds ratios (ORs) with 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) were estimated. Funnel plots and Egger’s tests were conducted for the evaluation of publication bias, and heterogeneity and sensitivity were also analyzed. Finally, a total of 25 studies involving 1572 patients were included in the meta-analysis. Coincidentally, all these studies were conducted in Chinese population. It was found that MMP-2 expression was significantly associated with high-WHO grade gliomas (n = 24, OR = 6.54, CI = 4.98–8.60; I² = 0 %, P = 0.911) and poor overall survival (OS), while it did not correlate to age (n = 2, OR = 0.78, CI = 0.35–1.74; I² = 0 %, P = 0.621) and gender (n = 2, OR = 1.15, CI = 0.51–2.62; I² = 0 %, P = 0.995). Moreover, the results of the pooled analysis indicated that there was no association between TIMP-2 expression and the WHO grade of gliomas (n = 7, OR = 1.02, 95 % CI = 0.68–1.54; I² = 71.4 %, P = 0.002), but the ratio of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 (MMP-2/TIMP-2) rose with the increase of the WHO grade of gliomas. In conclusion, there was no correlation between TIMP-2 expression and the WHO grade of gliomas, while MMP-2 expression was potently associated with high-WHO grade of gliomas.

αvβ6 integrin is required for TGFβ1-mediated matrix metalloproteinase2 expression

Transforming growth factor (TGF) β1 activity depends on a complex signalling cascade that controls expression of several genes. Among others, TGFβ1 regulates expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) through activation of Smads. In the present study, we demonstrate for the first time that the αvβ6 integrin interacts with TGFβ receptor II (TβRII) through the β6 cytoplasmic domain and promotes Smad3 activation in prostate cancer (PrCa) cells. Another related αv integrin, αvβ5, as well as the αvβ6/3 integrin, which contains a chimeric form of β6 with a β3 cytoplasmic domain, do not associate with TβRII and fail to show similar responses. We provide evidence that αvβ6 is required for up-regulation of MMP2 by TGFβ1 through a Smad3-mediated transcriptional programme in PrCa cells. The functional relevance of these results is underscored by the finding that αvβ6 modulates cell migration in an MMP2-dependent manner on an αvβ6-specific ligand, latency-associated peptide (LAP)-TGFβ. Overall, these mechanistic studies establish that expression of a single integrin, αvβ6, is sufficient to promote activation of Smad3, regulation of MMP2 levels and consequent catalytic activity, as well as cell migration. Our study describes a new TGFβ1-αvβ6-MMP2 signalling pathway that, given TGFβ1 pro-metastatic activity, may have profound implications for PrCa therapy.

Heat shock protein 27 regulates human prostate cancer cell motility and metastatic progression

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common form of cancer in American men. Mortality from PCa is caused by the movement of cancer cells from the primary organ to form metastatic tumors at distant sites. Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) is known to increase human PCa cell invasion and its overexpression is associated with metastatic disease. The role of HSP27 in driving PCa cell movement from the prostate to distant metastatic sites is unknown. Increased HSP27 expression increased metastasis as well as primary tumor mass. In vitro studies further examined the mechanism of HSP27-induced metastatic behavior. HSP27 did not affect cell detachment, adhesion, or migration, but did increase cell invasion. Cell invasion was dependent upon matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), whose expression was increased by HSP27. In vivo, HSP27 induced commensurate changes in MMP-2 expression in tumors. These findings demonstrate that HSP27 drives metastatic spread of cancer cells from the prostate to distant sites, does so across a continuum of expression levels, and identifies HSP27-driven increases in MMP-2 expression as functionally relevant. These findings add to prior studies demonstrating that HSP27 increases PCa cell motility, growth and survival. Together, they demonstrate that HSP27 plays an important role in PCa progression.

Prognostic impact of polymorphism of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and metalloproteinase tissue inhibitor-2 promoters in breast cancer in Tunisia: case-control study

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are proteolytic enzymes that play important roles in tumor invasion and metastasis by degrading extracellular matrix components. Genetic variations in promoter regions of MMP genes, affecting their expression, have been associated with susceptibility to cancers. The aim of this study was to investigate the susceptibility and prognostic implications of the matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) polymorphism in Tunisian breast cancer patients. MMP-2 genotypes were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and TIMP-2 genotypes were identified using a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method in 210 breast cancer patients and 250 frequency-matched control women. Association of the clinicopathological parameters and the genetic markers with risk of breast cancer was assessed using univariate analyses. We found that the variant MMP-2 genotype (-1306CT or TT) was associated with substantially reduced risk of breast cancer [odds ratio (OR), 0.49; 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI), 0.033-0.73], compared with the CC genotype. For TIMP-2, a moderately reduced risk of the cancer (OR, 0.57; 95 % CI, 0.37-0.87) was also associated with the variant allele (-418GC or CC), compared with the GG common allele. Furthermore, polymorphisms in both genes seem to have additive effects and the highest risk for breast cancer has been observed in those with MMP-2 CC genotype and TIMP-2 GC or CC genotype (p = 0.006). A significant association was also found between the CC genotype and the aggressive forms of breast cancer as defined by advanced stages at the time of diagnosis and metastasis. This is the first report on the association of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 gene polymorphisms in breast cancer in Tunisian population. Our results suggest that the presence of the variant allele in the promoter of MMP-2 or TIMP-2 may be a protective factor for the development of breast cancer.

No correlation between TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism and increased risk of cancer: evidence from a meta-analysis

Aim

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP2) is involved in the regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) and shown to implicate in cancer development and progression. The results from the published studies based on the association between TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism and cancer risk are inconsistent. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to evaluate the potential association between TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism and cancer risk.

Methodology

We searched PubMed (Medline) and EMBASE web databases to cover all studies based on relationship of TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism and risk of cancer until October 2013. The meta-analysis was performed for selected case-control studies and pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated for all genetic models.

Results

A total of 2225 cancer cases and 2532 controls were included from ten eligible case-control studies. Results from overall pooled analysis suggested no evidence of significant risk between TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism and cancer risk in any of the genetic models, such as, allele (C vs. G: OR = 1.293, 95% CI = 0.882 to 1.894, p = 0.188), homozygous (CC vs. GG: OR = 0.940, 95% CI = 0.434 to 2.039, p = 0.876), heterozygous (GC vs. GG: OR = 1.397, 95% CI = 0.888 to 2.198, p = 0.148), dominant (CC+GC vs. GG: OR = 1.387, 95% CI = 0.880 to 2.187, p = 0.159) and recessive (CC vs. GG+GC: OR = 0.901, 95% CI = 0.442 to 1.838, p = 0.774) models. No evidence of publication bias was detected during the analysis.

Conclusions

The present meta-analysis suggests that the TIMP2 -418 G>C polymorphism may not be involved in predisposing risk factor for cancer in overall population. However, future larger studies with group of populations are needed to analyze the possible correlation.

Roles of matrix metalloproteinases and their natural inhibitors in prostate cancer progression

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a group of zinc-dependent endopeptidases involved in the degradation of the extracellular matrix, play an important role in tissue remodeling associated with various physiological processes such as morphogenesis, angiogenesis, and tissue repair, as well as pathological processes including cirrhosis, arthritis and cancer. The MMPs are well established as mediators of tumor invasion and metastasis by breaking down connective tissue barriers. Although there has been a vast amount of literature on the role of MMPs in invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis of various cancers, the role of these endopeptidases in prostate cancer progression has not been systematically reviewed. This overview summarizes findings on the tissue and blood expression of MMPs, their function, regulation and prognostic implication in human prostate cancer, with a focus on MMP-2, -7, -9, MT1-MMP and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1). This review also summarizes the efficacy and failure of early-generation matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors (MMPIs) in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer and highlights the lessons and challenges for next generation MMPIs.

The combination of the prodrugs perforin-CEBPD and perforin-granzyme B efficiently enhances the activation of caspase signaling and kills prostate cancer

The survival of prostate cancer (PrCa) patients is associated with the transition to hormone-independent tumor growth and metastasis. Clinically, the dysregulation of androgen action has been associated with the formation of PrCa and the outcome of androgen deprivation therapy in PrCa. CCAAT/enhancer binding protein delta (CEBPD) is a transcription factor that has been reported to act as an oncogene or tumor suppressor, depending on the extra- and intracellular environments following tumorigenesis. We found that androgen can activate CEBPD transcription by direct binding of the androgen receptor (AR) to the CEBPD promoter region. Increases of suppressor of zeste 12 (SUZ12) and enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) attenuated the androgen-induced transcription of CEBPD. Importantly, the increases in E2F1, SUZ12 and EZH2 as well as the inactivation of CEBPD were associated with the clinicopathological variables and survival of PrCa patients. We revealed that caspase 8 (CASP8), an apoptotic initiator, is responsive to CEBPD induction. Reporter and in vivo DNA-binding assays revealed that CEBPD directly binds to and activates CASP8 reporter activity. A prodrug system was developed for therapeutic application in AR-independent or androgen-insensitive PrCa to avoid the epigenetic effects on the suppression of CEBPD expression. Our results showed that the combination of a perforin (PF)-CEBPD prodrug (which increases the level of procaspase-8) and a PF-granzyme B prodrug (which activates CASP8 and caspase 3 (CASP3)) showed an additive effect in triggering the apoptotic pathway and enhancing apoptosis in PrCa cells.

Prognostic significance of extracellular matrix degrading enzymes-cathepsin L and matrix metalloproteases-2 [MMP-2] in human pancreatic cancer

In the present study, we assessed the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) degrading proteases-cathepsin L and matrix metalloprotease-2 (MMP-2) in pancreatic cancer tissue and correlated their levels with clinicopathological parameters and survival. Both the proteases were expressed in the majority of the tumor tissues examined. Staining intensity of cathepsin L was significantly higher in the tumor stroma compared to tumor epithelium while MMP-2 staining showed no such difference. Both proteases showed correlation with some of the clinicopathological parameters but only cathepsin L expression in tumor epithelium predicted a poor prognosis for the disease.

Expression of MMP-1, MMP-9 and TIMP-2 in prostate carcinoma and their influence on prognosis and survival

PURPOSE

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) participate in tumorigenesis, and their association with disease outcome is highly controversial. The present study investigates the influence of MMP-1, MMP-9 and TIMP-2 on different clinicopathologic variables and disease-free survival (DFS) of patients with prostate carcinoma.

METHODS

Hundred and forty-five cases are included in the study, and levels of MMP/TIMP expressions are assessed in three tissue compartments (i.e., tumor, stroma and normal glands) with immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 expression in tumor cells was associated with lower Gleason scores, pretreatment prostate-specific antigen levels and lower incidence of vascular, perineural and extracapsular invasions. Moreover, MMP-9 positivity and TIMP-2 expression in normal glands were correlated with lower Gleason patterns and early stage at presentation. Expression of MMP in tumor cells and the presence of TIMP-2 in normal glands were associated with better DFS.

CONCLUSION

Variability of MMP/TIMP expressions from case to case makes it difficult to evaluate their impact on clinical outcome. However, these proteins might be new and promising targets for prostate cancer therapy in the future.

The role of treatment modality on the utility of predictive tissue biomarkers in clinical prostate cancer: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Tissue biomarkers could pivotally improve clinical outcome prediction following prostate cancer therapy. Clinically, prostate cancer is managed by diverse treatment modalities whose individual influence on a biomarker's predictive ability is not well understood and poorly investigated in the literature.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a systematic review to assess the predictive value of biomarkers in different treatment contexts in prostate cancer.

STUDY METHODOLOGY

A literature search was performed using the MeSH headings "prostate neoplasms" and "biological markers". Rigorous selection criteria identified studies correlating expression with clinical outcomes from primary androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), radical prostatectomy and radiotherapy (± neoadjuvant ADT).

STUDY RESULTS

Of 10,668 studies identified, 481 papers matched initial inclusion criteria. Following rescreening, 384 studies identified 236 individual tissue biomarkers, of which 29 were predictive on multivariate analysis in at least 2 independent cohorts. The majority were only tested in surgical cohorts. Only 8 predictive biomarkers were tested across all 3 treatments with Ki67 identified as universal predictive marker. p16 showed potential for treatment stratification between surgery and radiotherapy but needs further validation in independent studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite years of research, very few tissue biomarkers retain predictive value in independent validation across therapy context. Currently, none have conclusive ability to help treatment selection. Future biomarker research should consider the therapy context and use uniform methodology and evaluation criteria.

Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression in disseminated tumor cells and micrometastasis in bone marrow of patients with nonmetastatic and metastatic prostate cancer: theoretical considerations and clinical implications-an immunocytochemical study

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) is important in the dissemination and invasion of tumor cells and activates angiogenesis. We present an immunocytochemical study of MMP-2 expression in circulating prostate cells (CPCs), disseminated tumor cells (DTCs), and micrometastasis (mM) in bone marrow of men with prostate cancer. Methods and Patients. Tumor cells were identified with anti-PSA immunocytochemistry. Positive samples underwent processing with anti-MMP-2, its expression was compared with Gleason score, concordance of expression, and metastatic and nonmetastatic disease. Results. 215 men participated, CPCs were detected in 62.7%, DTCs in 62.2%, and mM in 71.4% in nonmetastatic cancer; in metastatic cancer all had CPCs, DTCs, and mM detected. All CPCs and DTCs expressed MMP-2; in mM MMP-2 expression was positively associated with increasing Gleason score. MMP-2 expression in CPCs and DTCs showed concordance. In low grade tumors, mM and surrounding stromal cells were MMP-2 negative, with variable expression in high grade tumors; in metastatic disease, both mM and stromal cells were MMP-2 positive. Conclusions. CPCs and DTCs are different from mM, with inhibition of MMP-2 expression in mM of low grade tumors. With disease progression, MMP-2 expression increases in both mM and surrounding stromal cells, with implications for the use of bisphosphonates or MMP-2 inhibitors.

Aberrant DNA methylation and prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent cancer, a significant contributor to morbidity and a leading cause of cancer-related death in men in Western industrialized countries. In contrast to genetic changes that vary among individual cases, somatic epigenetic alterations are early and highly consistent events. Epigenetics encompasses several different phenomena, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, RNA interference, and genomic imprinting. Epigenetic processes regulate gene expression and can change malignancy-associated phenotypes such as growth, migration, invasion, or angiogenesis. Methylations of certain genes are associated with PCa progression. Compared to normal prostate tissues, several hypermethylated genes have also been identified in benign prostate hyperplasia, which suggests a role for aberrant methylation in this growth dysfunction. Global and gene-specific DNA methylation could be affected by environmental and dietary factors. Among other epigenetic changes, aberrant DNA methylation might have a great potential as diagnostic or prognostic marker for PCa and could be tested in tumor tissues and various body fluids (e.g., serum, urine). The DNA methylation markers are simple in nature, have high sensitivity, and could be detected either quantitatively or qualitatively. Availability of genome-wide screening methodologies also allows the identification of epigenetic signatures in high throughput population studies. Unlike irreversible genetic changes, epigenetic alterations are reversible and could be used for PCa targeted therapies.

Inhibitory effects of antagonists of growth hormone-releasing hormone on growth and invasiveness of PC3 human prostate cancer

New approaches are needed to the therapy of advanced prostate cancer. This study determined the effect of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) antagonists, JMR-132 and JV-1-38 on growth of PC3 tumors as well as on angiogenesis and metastasis through the evaluation of various factors that contribute largely to the progression of prostate cancer. Human PC3 androgen-independent prostate cancer cells were injected subcutaneously into nude mice. The treatment with JMR-132 (10 μg/day) or JV-1-38 (20 μg/day) lasted 41 days. We also evaluated the effects of JMR-132 and JV-1-38 on proliferation, cell adhesion and migration in PC-3 cells in vitro. Several techniques (Western blot, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry, ELISA and zymography) were used to evaluate the expression levels of GHRH receptors and its splice variants, GHRH, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α, metalloproteinases (MMPs) -2 and -9, β-catenin and E-cadherin. GHRH antagonists suppressed the proliferation of PC-3 cells in vitro and significantly inhibited growth of PC3 tumors. After treatment with these analogues, we found an increase in expression of GHRH receptor accompanied by a decrease of GHRH levels, a reduction in both VEGF and HIF-1α expression and in active forms of MMP-2 and MMP-9, a significant increase in levels of membrane-associated β-catenin and a significant decline in E-cadherin. These results support that the blockade of GHRH receptors can modulate elements involved in angiogenesis and metastasis. Consequently, GHRH antagonists could be considered as suitable candidates for therapeutic trials in the management of androgen-independent prostate cancer.

No Association of Matrix Metalloproteinase [MMP]-2 (-735C > T) and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase [TIMP]-2 (-418G > C) Gene Polymorphisms with Cervical Cancer Susceptibility

Matrix metalloproteinase [MMP]-2 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase [TIMP]-2 are emerging as pivotal players in inflammation and carcinogenesis. The present study aimed to evaluate the role of MMP-2 (-735C > T) [rs 2285053] and TIMP-2 (-418G > C) [rs 8179090] gene polymorphisms in cervical cancer susceptibility in Indian women. We recruited 200 cervical cancer patients from North India and 200 unrelated, age-matched, cancer-free healthy female controls of similar ethnicity. Genomic DNA extraction from peripheral blood samples, collected from the study subjects, was carried out using salting-out method. MMP-2 and TIMP-2 genotyping was performed using polymerase chain reaction-based restriction fragment length polymorphism. Our findings demonstrated no significant association between MMP-2 (-735C > T) and TIMP-2 (-418G > C) gene polymorphisms and the risk of developing cervical cancer in the study population. Further stratified analysis using a case-only study approach revealed that there was no effect of MMP-2/TIMP-2 polymorphisms on early and advanced stages of cervical cancer. Further MMP-2 and TIMP-2 polymorphisms did not modulate the risk in cervical cancer patients who smoked tobacco/cigarettes. Overall, the present study demonstrated a lack of association between MMP-2 and TIMP-2 gene polymorphisms and cervical cancer susceptibility in women of Northern India.

DNA methylation in promoter region as biomarkers in prostate cancer

The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Recent emerging molecular biological technologies help us to know that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer. In this chapter, we updated current information on methylated genes associated with the development and progression of prostate cancer. Over 40 genes have been investigated for methylation in promoter region in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is discussed. These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis, the exciting potential to be predictive and to provide personalized treatment of prostate cancer. Indeed, some epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 promoter and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 gene polymorphisms in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter regions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMP) genes are associated with an adverse outcome in some cancers. We examined three polymorphisms: -1306C/T and -735C/T in MMP-2 and -418G/C in the TIMP-2 gene, using chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism typing analysis in 575 patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). We examined the possible correlations between the three polymorphisms (MMP-2 (-1306C/T and -735C/T) and TIMP-2 gene (-418G/C)) and the clinical significance and survival rate in patients with NHL. The incidence of the CT, TT+CT genotypes and T allele of -735C/T was significantly higher in stage III and IV patients compared to stage I and II patients. In cases with bone marrow infiltration, the TT genotypes of the -1306C/T gene were significantly less frequent compared to CC genotypes. The CT, TT and CT+TT genotypes and T allele in patients exhibiting the -1306C/T polymorphism were significantly less frequent in patients with a large tumor size compared to a smaller tumor. The TT genotypes of the -735C/T polymorphism were more common in patients with a large tumor compared to those with a smaller tumor. The frequency of the -1306C/-735T haplotype in patients with a smaller tumor size was significantly higher compared to patients with a large tumor. The -1306T/-735C and -1306C/-735C haplotypes were significantly less frequent in patients with B-symptoms compared to those without. Interestingly, patients with the -735CT genotype exhibited a lower rate of survival. Our results demonstrate that certain MMP-2 and TIMP-2 gene polymorphisms potentially effect the progression or assessment of prognosis for NHL. This research warrants further, larger scale studies.

Periacinar retraction clefting in nonneoplastic and neoplastic prostatic glands: artifact or molecular involvement

A space between neoplastic acini and prostatic stroma is not rare and studies have interpreted this as an artifact, considering the absence of endothelial cells indicating vascular invasion. Thus, the aims of this work were to characterize and correlate the occurrence and extent of retraction clefting with the reactivities of α and β dystroglycan (αDG, βDG), laminin, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), p63, insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1), vimentin, and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). The study was based on nonneoplastic and neoplastic prostatic tissues obtained from necropsies and retropubic radical prostatectomies. The results showed that periacinar retraction clefting was significantly more frequent in prostatic carcinoma samples than in normal prostatic acini. Most of the neoplastic acini (72.0%) showed retraction clefting of more than 50% of circumference, which were significantly more frequent in Gleason score 7 and 6. Decreased collagen and reticular and elastic fibers were verified in the stroma around neoplastic acini. Weak and discontinuous αDG, βDG, and laminin immunoreactivities and intensified MMP-2, vimentin, IGF-1 and FGF-2 immunoreactivities were verified in the neoplastic acini; p63 immunoreactivity was negative in all carcinomas. Thus, these findings showed that the lack of epithelial basal cells, DGs, and laminin and increased MMP-2, IGF-1, and FGF-7 could be considered important pathways in periacinar retraction occurrence. This study demonstrated the origin of and the biological mechanisms responsible for periacinar retraction clefting in prostatic carcinoma.

IGFBP-2 enhances VEGF gene promoter activity and consequent promotion of angiogenesis by neuroblastoma cells

IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-2 is one of the most significant genes in the signature of major aggressive cancers. Previously, we have shown that IGFBP-2 enhances proliferation and invasion of neuroblastoma cells, suggesting that IGFBP-2 activates a protumorigenic gene expression program in these cells. Gene expression profiling in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SHEP (SHEP)-BP-2 cells indicated that IGFBP-2 overexpression activated a gene expression program consistent with enhancement of tumorigenesis. Regulation was significant for genes involved in proliferation/survival, migration/adhesion, and angiogenesis, including the up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA (>2-fold). Specific transcriptional activation of the VEGF gene by IGFBP-2 overexpression was demonstrated via cotransfection of a VEGF promoter Luciferase construct in SHEP-BP-2. Cotransfection of VEGF promoter Luciferase construct with IGFBP-2 protein in wild-type SHEP cells indicated that transactivation of VEGF promoter only occurs in the presence of intracellular IGFBP-2. Cell fractionation and immunofluorescence in SHEP-BP-2 cells demonstrated nuclear localization of IGFBP-2. These findings suggest that transcriptional activation of VEGF promoter is likely to be mediated by nuclear IGFBP-2. The levels of secreted VEGF (up to 400 pg/10(6) cells) suggested that VEGF might elicit angiogenic activity. Hence, SHEP-BP-2 cells and control clones cultured in collagen sponge were xenografted onto chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane. Neomicrovascularization was observed by 72 h, solely in the SHEP-BP-2 cell xenografts. In conclusion, our data indicate that IGFBP-2 is an activator of aggressive behavior in cancer cells, involving nuclear entry and activation of a protumorigenic gene expression program, including transcriptional regulation of the VEGF gene and consequent proangiogenic activity of NB cell xenografts in vivo.

Anethole exerts antimetatstaic activity via inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase 2/9 and AKT/mitogen-activated kinase/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways

Anethole is known to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities and to be a main constituent of fennel, anise, and camphor. In the present study, we evaluated anti-metastatic and apoptotic effects of anethole on highly-metastatic HT-1080 human fibrosarcoma tumor cells. Despite weak cytotoxicity against HT-1080 cells, anethole inhibited the adhesion to Matrigel and invasion of HT-1080 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Anethole was also able to down-regulate the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 and up-regulate the gene expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1. The similar inhibitory effect of anethole on MMP-2 and -9 activities was confirmed by zymography assay. Furthermore, anethole significantly decreased mRNA expression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), but not uPA receptor (uPAR). In addition, anethole suppressed the phosphorylation of AKT, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB) in HT-1080 cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that anethole is a potent anti-metastatic drug that functions through inhibiting MMP-2/9 and AKT/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/NF-κB signal transducers.

Promoter hypermethylation in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer mortality in American men. It is well known that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer.

METHODS

This review discusses current information on methylated genes associated with prostate cancer development and progression.

RESULTS

Over 30 genes have been investigated for promoter methylation in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Certain epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.

Matrix metalloproteinases and angiogenic factors: predictors of survival after radical prostatectomy for clinically organ-confined prostate cancer?

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether biomarkers improve the prediction of recurrence-free, disease-specific, and overall survival in patients with clinically localized prostate cancer. A tissue microarray was constructed from prostate specimens of 278 patients who underwent open radical retropubic prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer. For immunohistochemical studies, antibodies were used against matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-9, MMP-13, and MMP-19, as well as against vascular endothelial growth factor, hypoxia-induced factor 1α, basic fibroblast growth factor, and cluster of differentiation 31. Univariate and multivariable analyses were performed to evaluate the potential predictors of overall, disease-specific, and recurrence-free survival. In univariate analysis of patients with clinically organ-confined prostate cancer, only higher expression levels of MMP-9 (hazard ratio [0.6], 95% CI 0.45-0.8) had a protective effect in terms of overall survival. This positive effect of high MMP-9 expression was also observed for recurrence-free (HR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78-0.99) and disease-specific survival (HR 0.5, 95% CI 0.36-0.73). In multivariable analysis, none of these potential markers was found to be an independent prognostic factor of survival. Of all MMPs and angiogenic factors tested, MMP-9 expression has the potential as a prognostic marker in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy for clinically organ-confined cases of prostate cancer.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 polymorphism is associated with prognosis in prostate cancer

OBJECTIVE

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequent tumor in males in Brazil. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have been demonstrated in the promoter region of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) genes and have been associated with development and progression of some cancers. In this study, our aim was to investigate a possible relation between polymorphism of the promoter region of the MMP2 gene and classical prognostic parameters in prostate cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Genomic DNA was extracted using conventional protocols. The DNA sequence containing the polymorphic site was amplified by real-time polymerase chain reaction, using fluorescent probes (TaqMan).

RESULTS

In patients with tumors of a higher stage (pT3), a polymorphic allele in the MMP2 gene was more frequent (P = 0.026) than in patients with lower tumor stage. A polymorphic allele in the MMP2 gene was more frequent in Gleason ≥ 7 than in Gleason ≤ 6 (P = 0.042).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that MMP2 polymorphism can be used together with pathological stage and Gleason score to identify patients with worse prognosis. Our results illustrate the potential use of MMP2 SNP as a molecular marker for prostate cancer.