The Double Opposing Periareola Flap: A Novel Concept for Nipple-Areola Reconstruction

Double purse-string suture surgical wound closure after excision of nipple adenoma of the breast: A case report

We present a rare case of nipple adenoma in a 53-year-old Caucasian woman. The lesion presented with a hemorrhagic nipple surface and was treated with wide surgical excision of the nipple and part of the surrounding areola and with a double purse-string surgical closure of the remaining areolar area. This technique was considered safe and effective and aimed to reconstruct the nipple area, thus providing the patient with an acceptable aesthetic result. Double purse-string surgical closure is proposed as a unique and straightforward, oncologically safe surgical procedure. This technique combines complete removal of the nipple adenoma, preservation of the remaining areola, minimization of skin flattening at the reconstructed area, improvement of the long-term aesthetic result, and provision of a satisfactory surgical option for the patient.

Healing of Bilateral Nipple Areolar Complex Necrosis by Secondary Intention

Complete necrosis of the nipple, areola, or both is a uncommon complication of reduction mammaplasty, especially if it happens bilaterally. This case involving a young, black female illustrates that, in a large open wound of the breast, it would be ideal to leave it to heal by secondary intention as adding a skin graft would only speed up the healing process and not improve the result with the additional risk of keloid at the donor site. This open wound of the breast was treated with progressive surgical debridement while assessing the affected area in order to preserve as much tissue as possible due to the sensitive nature of the wound along with wet to dry dressing changes and antibiotic solution treatment. Our report suggests an additional approach to the standard of care involving a free flap to improve aesthetic outcomes.

Nipple-Areola Complex Reconstruction

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand how to determine nipple-areola complex positioning on the reconstructed breast. 2. Understand the multitude of local flap and distant graft options for nipple-areola complex reconstruction. 3. Draw at least three fundamental nipple-areola complex reconstruction patterns. 4. Understand the forces that are responsible for flattening of the reconstructed papule. 5. Understand the current techniques used in secondary nipple-areola complex reconstructions.

SUMMARY

Nipple-areola complex reconstruction and tattooing represent the final two stages of breast reconstruction. Nipple-areola complex reconstruction is typically accomplished with the use of local flaps, local flaps with augmentation grafts, or a combination thereof. Regardless of the technique used, however, all nipple-areola complex reconstructions lose a degree of projection over time. Options for secondary reconstruction include the use of local tissue flaps alone or in combination with acellular biological matrices.

Nipple-areola complex reconstruction improves psychosocial and sexual well-being in women treated for breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Women choose to undergo nipple-areola complex (NAC) reconstruction as part of breast reconstruction following breast cancer treatment. However, the effect of this procedure on psychosocial and sexual well-being is not well studied. The present study aimed to evaluate how NAC reconstruction affects patient satisfaction with regard to psychosocial and sexual well-being.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed for all patients who underwent NAC reconstruction at Magee-Women's Hospital from January 1, 2004 to July 31, 2011. A letter and questionnaire based on the BREAST-Q were mailed to patients to request their participation in the study. Patient satisfaction and health-related quality of life were measured before and after NAC reconstruction.

RESULTS

In total, 107 of 328 patients (32.6%) completed the survey. The BREAST-Q scale score for satisfaction with outcome following NAC reconstruction was 85.1 ± 15.8, with higher satisfaction scores for patients with a follow-up of <1.5 years than those with a follow-up of >2.5 years (82.5 ± 21.7 vs. 69.5 ± 19.5; p < 0.01). No significant differences were found in satisfaction with the breast mound before and after NAC reconstruction. Women scored significantly higher on the psychosocial and sexual well-being scales after NAC reconstruction (p < 0.002 and 0.00004, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that patients are highly satisfied after undergoing NAC reconstruction. Satisfaction with the procedure, however, may decrease over time. NAC reconstruction significantly contributes to patient psychosocial and sexual well-being, and this effect did not change over time. NAC reconstruction improves patient outcomes in those who choose to undergo the procedure.

Nipple-areola complex reconstruction techniques: A literature review

Many techniques for nipple-areola complex (NAC) reconstruction are described. Clarity is required on the currently available options. Since a complete list of all the techniques described until now is not available, a possibly comprehensive literature overview was carried out from 75 papers (years 1946-2015). The local flap was the most frequently described technique for the nipple reconstruction with no significant difference in complications' rate among the various types of techniques. Complications in nipple reconstruction were 46.9% after graft, 7.9% after local flap, and 5.3% in case of flaps with autologous graft/alloplastic/allograft augmentation, while complications in areola reconstruction were 10.1% after graft, and 1.6% after areola tattoo. Flaps appear to be more reliable than grafts in nipple reconstruction, while tattoo is thought to be safer than graft in areola reconstruction. The loss of projection, although considerable (45%-75%), had not significant impact on patients' satisfaction. Due to contraction, overcorrection of 25-50% of the desired result is advisory when adopting local flaps, in order to prevent loss of projection. The use of flaps with autologous graft/alloplastic/allograft augmentation (cartilage, fat, calcium hydroxylapatite, acellular dermal matrix, polymethylmethacrylate, biologic collagen) showed a minor loss of nipple projection but may expose to a relative increased number of postoperative flap necrosis.

Immediate Nipple Reconstruction as Oncoplastic Breast Surgery: the Cigar Roll Flap with Inner Dermal Core Technique

BACKGROUND

Postoperative loss of projection is the most common problem following nipple reconstruction. Despite the various available nipple reconstruction techniques, a simple and reliable method that maintains nipple projection has not yet been developed. Here, we introduce a simple and feasible method for immediate nipple reconstruction-the cigar roll flap with inner dermal core technique-which is expected to maintain long-term nipple projection.

METHODS

Between January 2013 and August 2014, 23 breast cancer patients underwent unilateral nipple reconstruction using the cigar roll flap with inner dermal core technique during immediate breast reconstruction. The projection of the reconstructed nipple was measured at the time of surgery and after radiation therapy (average postoperative duration, 8 months).

RESULTS

The mean nipple projection at the time of surgery was 1.1 ± 0.2 cm. After radiation therapy, the mean projection was 1.0 ± 0.2 cm. The mean maintenance of nipple projection was 84.5 ± 5.3 %. No immediate or delayed major postoperative complications were noted in our series. Most of the patients were satisfied with the three-dimensional projection of the nipple.

CONCLUSIONS

The cigar roll flap with inner dermal core technique is a simple and reliable method for oncoplastic breast surgery during immediate nipple reconstruction and maintains constant projection without any major complications or donor-site morbidity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Nipple-areolar Complex Reconstruction following Postmastectomy Breast Reconstruction: A Comparative Utility Assessment Study

BACKGROUND

Nipple-areola complex (NAC) reconstruction occurs toward the final stage of breast reconstruction; however, not all women follow through with these procedures. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of the health state burden of living with a reconstructed breast before NAC reconstruction.

METHODS

A sample of the population and medical students at McGill University were recruited to establish the utility scores [visual analog scale (VAS), time trade-off (TTO), and standard gamble (SG)] of living with an NAC deformity. Utility scores for monocular and binocular blindness were determined for validation and comparison. Linear regression and Student's t test were used for statistical analysis, and significance was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

There were 103 prospective volunteers included. Utility scores (VAS, TTO, and SG) for NAC deformity were 0.84 ± 0.18, 0.92 ± 0.11, and 0.92 ± 0.11, respectively. Age, gender, and ethnicity were not statistically significant independent predictors of utility scores. Income thresholds of <$10,000 and >$10,000 revealed a statistically significant difference for VAS (P = 0.049) and SG (P = 0.015). Linear regression analysis showed that medical education was directly proportional to the SG and TTO scores (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of NAC in a reconstructed breast can be objectively assessed using utility scores (VAS, 0.84 ± 0.18; TTO, 0.92 ± 0.11; SG, 0.92 ± 0.11). In comparison to prior reported conditions, the quality of life in patients choosing to undergo NAC reconstruction is similar to that of persons living with a nasal deformity or an aging neck requiring rejuvenation.

Our Experiences in Nipple Reconstruction Using the Hammond flap

Background

Nipple reconstruction following breast mound reconstruction is the final step in breast reconstruction. Although nipple reconstruction is a simple surgery, the psychological aspects of nipple reconstruction are thought to be important. Nipple projection is a key factor in determining patient satisfaction with the surgery. In the present study, the Hammond flap technique was introduced for nipple reconstruction.

Methods

Twenty-six patients who had undergone breast reconstruction from February 2008 to March 2012 were enrolled in this prospective study. All patients were evaluated based on preoperative photos, and their nipple diameters and heights were measured. Postoperative evaluation was conducted 3, 6, 9, and 12 months following nipple reconstruction. A questionnaire on patient satisfaction with the nipple reconstruction was administered 12 months after nipple reconstruction. Moreover, the same plastic surgeon scored nipple projection and overall cosmetic result of the new nipple.

Results

The mean projection was 4.4 mm (range, 3-6 mm), and it well matched the contralateral nipple. Twelve months following nipple reconstruction, the mean reduction rate in the nipple projection was 43.6%. Patients were satisfied or very satisfied with the nipple projection and the overall cosmetic result in 80.7% cases.

Conclusions

In the present study, compared with other techniques, the use of the Hammond flap technique in nipple reconstruction showed competitive results with regard to nipple projection and patient satisfaction.

Nipple reconstruction after implant-based breast reconstruction: a "matched-pair" outcome analysis focusing on the effects of radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

The major focus of research when addressing nipple reconstruction has been on developing new techniques to provide for long-lasting nipple projection. Rarely, has the outcome of nipple reconstruction as it relates to postoperative morbidity, particularly after implant-based breast reconstruction, been analyzed.

METHODS

A "matched-pair" study was designed to specifically answer the question whether a history of radiotherapy predisposes to a higher complication rate after nipple reconstruction in patients after implant-based breast reconstruction. Only patients with a history of unilateral radiotherapy who underwent bilateral mastectomy and implant-based breast reconstruction followed by bilateral nipple reconstruction were included in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 17 patients (i.e. 34 nipple reconstructions) were identified who met inclusion criteria. The mean age of the study population was 43.5 years (range, 23-69). Complications were seen after a total of 8 nipple reconstructions (23.5 percent). Of these, 7 complications were seen on the irradiated side (41.2 percent) (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

While nipple reconstruction is a safe procedure after implant-based breast reconstruction in patients without a history of radiotherapy the presence of an irradiated field converts it to a procedure with a significant increase in postoperative complication rate.

Nipple Reconstruction: Risk Factors and Complications after 189 Procedures

BACKGROUND

A multitude of different approaches have been proposed for achieving optimal aesthetic results after nipple reconstruction. In contrast, however, only a few studies focus on the morbidity associated with this procedure, particularly after implant-based breast reconstruction.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional study design all patients who underwent implant-based breast reconstruction with subsequent nipple reconstruction between 2000 and 2010 at Stanford University Medical Center were identified. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of the following parameters on the occurrence of postoperative complications: age, final implant volume, time interval from placement of final implant to nipple reconstruction, and history of radiotherapy.

RESULTS

A total of 139 patients with a mean age of 47.5 years (range, 29 to 75 years) underwent 189 nipple reconstructions. The overall complication rate was 13.2 percent (N = 25 nipple reconstructions). No association was observed between age (p = 0.43) or implant volume (p = 0.47) and the occurrence of complications. A trend towards higher complication rates in patients in whom the time interval between final implant placement and nipple reconstruction was greater than 8.5 months was seen (p = 0.07). Radiotherapy was the only parameter that was associated with a statistically significant increase in postoperative complication rate (51.7 percent vs. 6.25 percent; p < 0.00001).

CONCLUSION

While nipple reconstruction is a safe procedure after implant-based breast reconstruction in patients without a history of radiotherapy, the presence of an irradiated field converts it to a high-risk one with a significant increase in postoperative complication rate. Patients with a history of radiotherapy should be informed about their risk profile and as a result may choose autologous reconstruction instead.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

The impact of nipple reconstruction on patient satisfaction in breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Nipple reconstruction is an integral part of the breast reconstruction process, as patients associate this stage with closure while providing a sense of completeness. This study evaluates the effect of nipple reconstruction on patient satisfaction with breast reconstruction.

METHODS

All patients at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center undergoing breast reconstruction between 1999 and 2006 were identified. Patient demographics and complications were collected retrospectively while aesthetic and general satisfaction was evaluated by an administered survey. Patients with nipple reconstruction at the time of survey were compared to patients without nipple reconstruction.

RESULTS

Nine hundred two breast reconstructions were performed in 696 patients; 490 patients underwent nipple reconstruction and 206 did not. Autologous reconstruction predominated in patients with and without nipple reconstruction (61.8% and 54.8%, respectively). There were no significant differences in individual and overall total complications between groups. Patients with nipple reconstruction had significantly higher general (72.2% vs 52.8%, P<0.0001) and aesthetic (70.5% vs 46.5%, P<0.0001) satisfaction scores compared to patients without nipple reconstruction. These results were seen in unilateral and bilateral breast reconstruction. Across reconstructive techniques, patients with nipple reconstruction had higher aesthetic satisfaction. Patient satisfaction scores in all individual survey questions were statistically higher in patients with nipple reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with breast reconstruction who undergo nipple reconstruction have higher general and aesthetic satisfaction compared to breast reconstruction alone. These differences were observed in both unilateral and bilateral reconstruction. Patients should be fully counseled about potential benefits nipple reconstruction can provide to all forms of breast reconstruction.

The C-V flap for nipple reconstruction after previous skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate breast reconstruction: refinements of donor-site closure

BACKGROUND

The C-V flap including its modifications is very popular flap used for nipple reconstruction.

METHODS

This report describes a refinement of the C-V flap used in nipple reconstruction for patients who previously have undergone skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate breast reconstruction. Closure of the V flap donor sites is facilitated by means of designing two opposing advancement "areolar" skin flaps.

RESULTS

Our modification ensures that no "dog ears" remain after the donor sites of the two V flaps are closed and that all scarring remains within the skin paddle of the neo-areola without any extensions on the mastectomy skin flaps.

CONCLUSION

Our refinement of the closure for the donor site of the C-V flap used in nipple reconstruction produces an aesthetically pleasing result without unnecessary donor-site scar extensions on the mastectomy skin flaps.

Patient satisfaction following nipple reconstruction incorporating autologous costal cartilage

BACKGROUND

Nipple-areolar reconstruction completes post-mastectomy breast reconstruction. Many techniques for nipple reconstruction have been described, and each has their advocates and critics. One of the frequent failings of most designs is loss of nipple projection with time.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of including autologous costal cartilage on patient satisfaction with their nipple reconstruction.

METHODS

Sixty-eight patients were identified who had undergone fishtail flap nipple reconstruction following autologous free flap breast reconstruction between 1990 and 2004. Qualitative questionnaires, using Likert scales, were sent to each patient to specifically assess their satisfaction with their nipple reconstruction.

RESULTS

Of 26 respondents (mean +/- SEM follow-up period 3.7+/-3.6 years), 13 had undergone nipple reconstruction incorporating costal cartilage banked at the time of initial breast reconstruction, and the other 13 had no cartilage in their nipple reconstructions. While both groups would opt for nipple reconstruction again, patients with cartilage grafts incorporated into their reconstructions had overall satisfaction ratings 1.92 grades higher on average (not significant, P=0.12) than those without. This difference increased to 3.2 grades when the satisfaction of the patient's partner was taken into account (P<0.05). Improved satisfaction corresponded to higher scores for volume, consistency, texture, and particularly for projection and contour of the nipple (P<0.05). Although nipple morphology changed over time, there was a trend toward improved stability in the cartilage group.

CONCLUSIONS

Patient satisfaction with nipple reconstruction can be improved by incorporating costal cartilage beneath the skin flaps. Superior contour and projection are sustained over time.

A new method for using a silicone rod for permanent nipple projection after breast reconstruction procedures

Nipple-areola complex (NAC) is a unique part of the human body. Not only is it a functional structure, but it plays an aesthetic role as well. It offers the final touch to the convex shape of the breast. Its lack frequently leads to depression in patients. This paper describes the method used by the authors for reconstructing nipple mound projection in patients following an autologous breast reconstruction procedure. To reconstruct the nipple mound an adapted local C-V flap technique described by Losken was used, with a silicone rod to support the nipple. The new method is based on simple preparation of flaps, fixing the silicone rod at the nipple bottom and below the top, it is quick and efficient in terms of time and materials used. The procedure was conducted in 30 patients: 10 cases following LDf reconstruction and Becker prosthesis or expander prosthesis, 20 cases following body tissue reconstruction with TRAM flap (Transverse Rectus Abdominis Musculocutaneous flap). All the patients who had undergone the LDf procedure developed flap necrosis followed by rod removal. In the patients who had undergone TRAM flap reconstruction no necrosis or wound split was observed, healing progressed without complications. In this group durable nipple projection was achieved. The new method for reconstructing nipple projection may be applied both in simultaneous and staged procedures, only in patients who have undergone autologous breast reconstruction procedure.

Effectiveness of the Asteame Nipple Guard™ in maintaining projection following nipple reconstruction: a prospective randomised controlled trial

As the final step in breast reconstruction, nipple reconstruction is considered a minor surgical procedure. However, despite the multitude of techniques and postoperative dressings proposed, none have proven to resist the tendency of the reconstructed nipple to gradually flatten over time. A prospective randomized controlled trial was conducted assessing the value of using the Asteame Nipple Guard™ compared to standard gauze dressing in maintaining nipple projection postoperatively. A total of 30 nipple reconstructions in 22 patients were included in the study with randomisation of 15 nipples to each study arm. Nipple projection was measured at various time points postoperatively with calculation of the percent changes in nipple projection. The mean decrease in long-term nipple projection at 6 months in the experimental group was 46.6% vs. 71.8% in the control group (p<0.05). In conclusion, the Nipple Guard™ helps in maintaining nipple projection postoperatively.

Nipple reconstruction: evidence-based trials in the plastic surgical literature

Although many technical descriptions of nipple reconstruction exist in the medical literature, insufficient evidence-based data are present about the outcome. This study aimed to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and controlled clinical trials (CCTs) in the plastic surgical literature addressing nipple reconstruction, and to elucidate whether a hand search was superior to an extensive database search in retrieving all pertinent studies. The hand search included analysis of all "original articles" published in four of the leading plastic surgery journals from January 1990 to December 2005, with subsequent identification of RCTs and CCTs. Additionally, a computerized search was conducted including the following databases: PubMed, Web of Science, and Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews. From a total of 10,476 published original articles in four plastic surgery journals over a 16-year period, only one RCT was identified that addressed nipple reconstruction. The database search, however, retrieved two trials: the RCT identified by hand search and one CCT. The impact of nipple reconstruction is well described in the literature. However, it is astonishing that the plastic surgical literature lacks evidence-based trials addressing this issue. Clearly, more evidence-based trials are necessary to ensure that recommendations for a particular technique are based on solid scientific data.