An allosteric coagonist model for propofol effects on α1β2γ2L γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors

The activity of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain interferes with anesthesia-arousal process of propofol

Previous research has demonstrated that basal forebrain (BF) regulates arousal during propofol anesthesia. However, as the BF comprises cholinergic neurons alongside two other types of neurons, the specific role of cholinergic neurons has not been definitively elucidated. In our study, calcium signal imaging was utilized to monitor the real-time activities of cholinergic neurons in the BF during propofol anesthesia. Additionally, we selectively stimulated these neurons to investigate EEG and behavioral responses during propofol anesthesia. Furthermore, we specifically lesioned cholinergic neurons in the BF to investigate the sensitivity to propofol and the induction time. The results revealed that propofol suppressed calcium signals of cholinergic neurons within the BF following intraperitoneal injection. Notably, upon recovery of the righting reflex, the calcium signals partially recovered. Spectral analysis of the EEG elucidated that optical stimulation of cholinergic neurons led to a decrease in δ power underlie propofol anesthesia. Conversely, depletion of cholinergic neurons in the BF enhanced sensitivity to propofol and shortened the induction time. These findings clarify the role of cholinergic neurons in the anesthesia-arousal process, as well as the depth and the sensitivity of propofol anesthesia.

Three classes of propofol binding sites on GABAA receptors

Propofol is a widely used anesthetic and sedative that acts as a positive allosteric modulator of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. Several potential propofol binding sites that may mediate this effect have been identified using propofol-analogue photoaffinity labeling. Ortho-propofol diazirine (o-PD) labels β-H267, a pore-lining residue, whereas AziPm labels residues β-M286, β-M227, and α-I239 in the two membrane-facing interfaces [β(+)/α(-) and α(+)/β(-)] between α and β subunits. This study used photoaffinity labeling of α1β3 GABAA receptors to reconcile the apparently conflicting results obtained with AziPm and o-PD labeling, focusing on whether β3-H267 identifies specific propofol binding site(s). The results show that propofol, but not AziPm protects β3-H267 from labeling by o-PD, whereas both propofol and o-PD protect against AziPm labeling of β3-M286, β3-M227, and α1I239. These data indicate that there are three distinct classes of propofol binding sites, with AziPm binding to two of the classes and o-PD to all three. Analysis of binding stoichiometry using native mass spectrometry in β3 homomeric receptors, demonstrated a minimum of five AziPm labeled residues and three o-PD labeled residues per pentamer, suggesting that there are two distinct propofol binding sites per β-subunit. The native mass spectrometry data, coupled with photolabeling performed in the presence of zinc, indicate that the binding site(s) identified by o-PD are adjacent to, but not within the channel pore, since the pore at the 17' H267 residue can accommodate only one propofol molecule. These data validate the existence of three classes of specific propofol binding sites on α1β3 GABAA receptors.

Potentiation of the GABAAR reveals variable energetic contributions by etiocholanolone and propofol

The properties of a potentiator are typically evaluated by measuring its ability to enhance the magnitude of the control response. Analysis of the ability of drugs to potentiate responses from receptor channels takes place in the context of particular models to extract parameters for functional effects. In the often-used coagonist model, the agonist generating control activity and the potentiator enhancing the control activity make additive energetic contributions to stabilize the active state of the receptor. The energetic contributions are fixed and, once known, enable calculation of predicted receptor behavior at any concentration combination of agonist and potentiator. Here, we have examined the applicability of the coagonist model by measuring the relationship between the magnitude of receptor potentiation and the level of background activity. Ternary αβγ GABAA receptors were activated by GABA or the allosteric agonist propofol, or by a gain-of-function mutation, and etiocholanolone- or propofol-mediated potentiation of peak responses was measured. We show that the free energy change contributed by the modulators etiocholanolone or propofol is reduced at higher levels of control activity, thereby being in disagreement with basic principles of the coagonist model. Possible mechanisms underlying this discrepancy are discussed.

Safety and effectiveness of the combination of remimazolam tosilate and propofol in gastroscopy: a multicenter, randomized controlled, single-blind clinical trial

Remimazolam tosilate (RT) is a new short-acting γ-aminobutyric acid A (GABAA) receptors agonist. However, its optimal use mode and dosage still remain unclear. This study aimed to examine the safety and effectiveness of the combination of RT and propofol in gastroscopy. This was a prospective, single-blind, randomized, multicenter, parallel-group study. All eligible 256 patients were randomized into the following 3 groups. Patients were anesthetized with propofol (Group P), RT (Group R) or the combination of RT and propofol (Group RP). The primary efficacy endpoints were: body movement score; satisfaction of gastroscopy doctors; success rate of sedation and effects on sleep status. Sedation induction time, time to be fully alert and adverse events were also recorded. The probability of complete immobility was lower in group R (33.73%) than in group P (86.67%) and RP (83.13%). The rate of doctors' satisfaction was much lower in group R (28.92%) than in group P (77.78%) and RP (72.29%). The success rate of sedation and sleep outcome score has no difference in the three groups. The time to adequate sedation was longer in group RP (77.27 ± 18.63 s) than in group P (64.47 ± 24.36 s), but much shorter than that in group R (102.84 ± 46.43s). The time to be fully alert was shorter in group R (6.30 ± 1.52 min) and RP (6.54 ± 1.13 min) than in group P (7.87 ± 1.08 min). The proportion of sedative hypotension was significantly higher in group P (41.11%) than in group R (1.20%) and group RP (3.61%) (p < 0.001). The incidence of respiratory depression was much higher in group P (17.78%) than in group R (no patient) and group RP (1.2%). The incidence of adverse events was lower in groups R (4.82%) and RP (9.64%) than in group P (31.11%). The combination of RT and propofol takes effect quickly, makes patients alert quickly, provides a sufficient depth of sedation, reduces body movement, does not inhibit circulation and respiratory function, does not affect sleep, and is the preferred mode for gastroscopy doctors and anesthesiologists.

Mutational Analysis of Anesthetic Binding Sites and Their Effects on GABAA Receptor Activation and Modulation by Positive Allosteric Modulators of the α7 Nicotinic Receptor

The positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the α7 nicotinic receptor N-(5-Cl-2-hydroxyphenyl)-N'-[2-Cl-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-urea (NS-1738) and (E)-3-(furan-2-yl)-N-(p-tolyl)-acrylamide (PAM-2) potentiate the α1β2γ2L GABAA receptor through interactions with the classic anesthetic binding sites located at intersubunit interfaces in the transmembrane domain of the receptor. In the present study, we employed mutational analysis to investigate in detail the involvement and contributions made by the individual intersubunit interfaces to receptor modulation by NS-1738 and PAM-2. We show that mutations to each of the anesthetic-binding intersubunit interfaces (β+/α-, α+/β-, and γ+/β-), as well as the orphan α+/γ- interface, modify receptor potentiation by NS-1738 and PAM-2. Furthermore, mutations to any single interface can fully abolish potentiation by the α7-PAMs. The findings are discussed in the context of energetic additivity and interactions between the individual binding sites.

Competitive Interactions Between Propofol and Diazepam: Studies in GABAA Receptors and Zebrafish

Although propofol is among the most commonly administered general anesthetics, its mechanism of action is not fully understood. It has been hypothesized that propofol acts via a similar mechanism as (R)-ethyl 1-(1-phenylethyl)-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (etomidate) by binding within the GABAA receptor transmembrane receptor domain at the two β +/α - subunit interfaces with resultant positive allosteric modulation. To test this hypothesis, we leveraged the ability of diazepam to bind to those sites and act as a competitive antagonist. We used oocyte-expressed α 1 β 3 γ 2L GABAA receptors to define the actions of diazepam (± flumazenil) on currents activated or potentiated by propofol and a zebrafish activity assay to define the impact of diazepam and flumazenil on propofol-induced anesthesia. We found that diazepam increased the amplitudes of GABAA receptor-mediated currents at nanomolar concentrations but reduced them at micromolar concentrations. The current amplitude changes produced by nanomolar diazepam concentrations were inhibited by flumazenil whereas those produced by micromolar diazepam concentrations were not. Studies of agonist potentiation showed that the micromolar inhibitory action of diazepam was surmountable by high concentrations of propofol and produced a rightward shift in the propofol concentration-response curve characterized by a Schild slope not statistically significantly different from 1, consistent with competition between diazepam and propofol. Although micromolar concentrations of diazepam (plus flumazenil) similarly reduced GABAA receptor currents modulated by propofol and etomidate, it only reduced the anesthetic actions of etomidate. We conclude that while both propofol and etomidate can modulate GABAA receptors by binding to the β +/α - subunit interfacial sites, propofol-induced anesthesia likely involves additional target sites. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Although the drug combination of diazepam and flumazenil reverses the GABAA receptor positive modulatory actions of both propofol and (R)-ethyl 1-(1-phenylethyl)-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (etomidate), it only reverses the in vivo anesthetic actions of etomidate. These results strongly suggest that distinct mechanisms of action account for the anesthetic actions of these two commonly administered anesthetic agents.

Efficacy and safety of different doses of remimazolam tosylate for colonoscopy: single-center, prospective, randomized, double-blind, parallel trial

Background

Remimazolam tosylate is a new sedative combining the advantages of etomidate with remifentanil. Remimazolam tosylate shows effective in colonoscopy, but the optimal dose is not confirm. In this study, a single-center, prospective, randomized, double-blind, parallel trial were performed to compare the efficacy and safety of different doses of remimazolam tosylate for colonoscopy.

Methods

Before colonoscopy, 120 recruited patients were randomized with a 1:1:1 ratio into 3 treatment groups: group A, 0.1 mg/kg remimazolam tosylate; group B, 0.15 mg/kg remimazolam tosylate; group C, 0.2 mg/kg remimazolam tosylate. Patients received 1 µg/kg fentanyl by intravenous injection over 30 s followed by the respective induction dose of remimazolam tosylate over 1 min (±5 s). When adequate sedation was achieved, colonoscopy was performed. Sedation was maintained at Modified Observer's Assessment of Alertness/Sedation (MOAA/S) ≤4 during the procedure. The additional administration of remimazolam tosylate (0.05 mg/kg per time) was permitted when necessary.

Results

Forty-one patients, 39 patients and 40 patients were respectively analyzed in group A, group B and group C. The procedural success rate was 80.49%, 87.18% and 95.00% in group A, group B and group C, respectively. During the induction period, patients in group A required additional doses of remimazolam tosylate more frequently than in group B and group C, but less during the maintenance period (all P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the induction time or time to recovery among the three groups. Incidence of adverse events (such as hypotension, hyoxemia and bucking) was similar among the three groups.

Conclusions

The initial loading doses of 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2 mg/kg remimazolam tosylate were all efficacy and safety for patients undergoing colonoscopy, and fewer times of the drug was re-administered.

Trial Registration

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR2000041331.

Photomotor Responses in Zebrafish and Electrophysiology Reveal Varying Interactions of Anesthetics Targeting Distinct Sites on γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptors

BACKGROUND

Etomidate, barbiturates, alfaxalone, and propofol are anesthetics that allosterically modulate γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors via distinct sets of molecular binding sites. Two-state concerted coagonist models account for anesthetic effects and predict supra-additive interactions between drug pairs acting at distinct sites. Some behavioral and molecular studies support these predictions, while other findings suggest potentially complex anesthetic interactions. We therefore evaluated interactions among four anesthetics in both animals and GABAA receptors.

METHODS

The authors used video assessment of photomotor responses in zebrafish larvae and isobolography to evaluate hypnotic drug pair interactions. Voltage clamp electrophysiology and allosteric shift analysis evaluated coagonist interactions in α1β3γ2L receptors activated by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) versus anesthetics [log(d, AN):log(d, GABA) ratio]. Anesthetic interactions at concentrations relevant to zebrafish were assessed in receptors activated with low GABA.

RESULTS

In zebrafish larvae, etomidate interacted additively with both propofol and the barbiturate R-5-allyl-1-methyl m-trifluoromethyl mephobarbital (R-mTFD-MPAB; mean ± SD α = 1.0 ± 0.07 and 0.96 ± 0.11 respectively, where 1.0 indicates additivity), while the four other drug pairs displayed synergy (mean α range 0.76 to 0.89). Electrophysiologic allosteric shifts revealed that both propofol and R-mTFD-MPAB modulated etomidate-activated receptors much less than GABA-activated receptors [log(d, AN):log(d, GABA) ratios = 0.09 ± 0.021 and 0.38 ± 0.024, respectively], while alfaxalone comparably modulated receptors activated by GABA or etomidate [log(d) ratio = 0.87 ± 0.056]. With low GABA activation, etomidate combined with alfaxalone was supra-additive (n = 6; P = 0.023 by paired t test), but etomidate plus R-mTFD-MPAB or propofol was not.

CONCLUSIONS

In both zebrafish and GABAA receptors, anesthetic drug pairs interacted variably, ranging from additivity to synergy. Pairs including etomidate displayed corresponding interactions in animals and receptors. Some of these results challenge simple two-state coagonist models and support alternatives where different anesthetics may stabilize distinct receptor conformations, altering the effects of other drugs.

EDITOR’S PERSPECTIVE

Activation of the Rat α1β2ε GABAA Receptor by Orthosteric and Allosteric Agonists

GABA_A receptors are a major contributor to fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain. The receptors are activated upon binding the transmitter GABA or allosteric agonists including a number of GABAergic anesthetics and neurosteroids. Functional receptors can be formed by various combinations of the nineteen GABA_A subunits cloned to date. GABA_A receptors containing the ε subunit exhibit a significant degree of constitutive activity and have been suggested to be unresponsive to allosteric agents. In this study, we have characterized the functional properties of the rat α1β2ε GABA_A receptor. We confirm that the α1β2ε receptor exhibits a higher level of constitutive activity than typical of GABA_A receptors and show that it is inefficaciously activated by the transmitter and the allosteric agonists propofol, pentobarbital, and allopregnanolone. Manipulations intended to alter ε subunit expression and receptor stoichiometry were largely without effect on receptor properties including sensitivity to GABA and allosteric agonists. Surprisingly, amino acid substitutions at the conserved 9' and 6' positions in the second transmembrane (TM2) domain in the ε subunit did not elicit the expected functional effects of increased constitutive activity and resistance to the channel blocker picrotoxin, respectively. We tested the accessibility of TM2 residues mutated to cysteine using the cysteine-modifying reagent 4-(hydroxymercuri)benzoic acid and found a unique pattern of water-accessible residues in the ε subunit.

Isoflurane inhibition of endocytosis is an anesthetic mechanism of action

The mechanisms of volatile anesthetic action remain among the most perplexing mysteries of medicine. Across phylogeny, volatile anesthetics selectively inhibit mitochondrial complex I, and they also depress presynaptic excitatory signaling. To explore how these effects are linked, we studied isoflurane effects on presynaptic vesicle cycling and ATP levels in hippocampal cultured neurons from wild-type and complex I mutant (Ndufs4(KO)) mice. To bypass complex I, we measured isoflurane effects on anesthetic sensitivity in mice expressing NADH dehydrogenase (NDi1). Endocytosis in physiologic concentrations of glucose was delayed by effective behavioral concentrations of isoflurane in both wild-type (τ [unexposed] 44.8 ± 24.2 s; τ [exposed] 116.1 ± 28.1 s; p < 0.01) and Ndufs4(KO) cultures (τ [unexposed] 67.6 ± 16.0 s; τ [exposed] 128.4 ± 42.9 s; p = 0.028). Increasing glucose, to enhance glycolysis and increase ATP production, led to maintenance of both ATP levels and endocytosis (τ [unexposed] 28.0 ± 14.4; τ [exposed] 38.2 ± 5.7; reducing glucose worsened ATP levels and depressed endocytosis (τ [unexposed] 85.4 ± 69.3; τ [exposed] > 1,000; p < 0.001). The block in recycling occurred at the level of reuptake of synaptic vesicles into the presynaptic cell. Expression of NDi1 in wild-type mice caused behavioral resistance to isoflurane for tail clamp response (EC₅₀ Ndi1(-) 1.27% ± 0.14%; Ndi1(+) 1.55% ± 0.13%) and halothane (EC₅₀ Ndi1(-) 1.20% ± 0.11%; Ndi1(+) 1.46% ± 0.10%); expression of NDi1 in neurons improved hippocampal function, alleviated inhibition of presynaptic recycling, and increased ATP levels during isoflurane exposure. The clear alignment of cell culture data to in vivo phenotypes of both isoflurane-sensitive and -resistant mice indicates that inhibition of mitochondrial complex I is a primary mechanism of action of volatile anesthetics.

Anesthesia-Induced Oxidative Stress: Are There Differences between Intravenous and Inhaled Anesthetics?

Agents used for the induction of anesthesia have been shown to either promote or mitigate oxidative stress. A fine balance between the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants is crucial for the proper normal functioning of the cell. A basal concentration of ROS is essential for the manifestation of cellular functions, whereas disproportionate levels of ROS cause damage to cellular macromolecules such as DNA, lipids, and proteins, eventually leading to necrosis and apoptosis. Increased ROS has been linked with numerous illnesses, such as cardiovascular, immune system, liver, and kidney, and has been shown to promote cancer and accelerate aging. Knowledge of the various pharmacologic agents that increase or reduce oxidative stress may promote a safer way of inducing anesthesia. Furthermore, surgery itself leads to increased ROS production and ischemia/reperfusion injury. Indeed, increased perioperative oxidative stress has been correlated with increased postoperative complications and prolonged recovery. Anesthesiologists care for patients during the whole spectrum of perioperative care and thus are in a unique position to deliver countermeasures to oxidative stress. Using preferentially an induction agent which reduces oxidative stress might lead to better clinical outcomes and fewer postoperative complications. Propofol has been shown in several studies to reduce oxidative stress, which reduces postoperative complications and leads to a faster recovery, and thus might represent the preferred induction agent in the right clinical setting.

Selective actions of benzodiazepines at the transmembrane anaesthetic binding sites of the GABAA receptor: In vitro and in vivo studies

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In addition to binding to the classical high-affinity extracellular benzodiazepine binding site of the GABAA receptor, some benzodiazepines occupy transmembrane inter-subunit anaesthetic sites that bind etomidate (β+ /α- sites) or the barbiturate derivative R-mTFD-MPAB (α+ /β- and γ+ /β- sites). We aimed to define the functional effects of these interactions on GABAA receptor activity and animal behaviour.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

With flumazenil blocking classical high-affinity extracellular benzodiazepine site effects, modulation of GABA-activated currents by diazepam, midazolam and flurazepam was measured electrophysiologically in wildtype and M2-15' mutant α1 β3 γ2L GABAA receptors. Zebrafish locomotive activity was also assessed in the presence of each benzodiazepine plus flumazenil.

KEY RESULTS

In the presence of flumazenil, micromolar concentrations of diazepam and midazolam both potentiated and inhibited wildtype GABAA receptor currents. β3 N265M (M2-15' in the β+ /α- sites) and α1 S270I (M2-15' in the α+ /β- site) mutations reduced or abolished potentiation by these drugs. In contrast, the γ2 S280W mutation (M2-15' in the γ+ /β- site) abolished inhibition. Flurazepam plus flumazenil only inhibited wildtype receptor currents, an effect unaltered by M2-15' mutations. In the presence of flumazenil, zebrafish locomotion was enhanced by diazepam at concentrations up to 30 μM and suppressed at 100 μM, suppressed by midazolam and enhanced by flurazepam.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Benzodiazepine binding to transmembrane anaesthetic binding sites of the GABAA receptor can produce positive or negative modulation manifesting as decreases or increases in locomotion, respectively. Selectivity for these sites may contribute to the distinct GABAA receptor and behavioural actions of different benzodiazepines, particularly at high (i.e. anaesthetic) concentrations.

Perspective on the relationship between GABAA receptor activity and the apparent potency of an inhibitor

Background: In electrophysiological experiments, inhibition of a receptor-channel, such as the GABA_A receptor, is measured by co-applying an agonist producing a predefined control response with an inhibitor to calculate the fraction of the control response remaining in the presence of the inhibitor. The properties of the inhibitor are determined by fitting the inhibition concentration-response relationship to the Hill equation to estimate the midpoint (IC₅₀) of the inhibition curve.

Objective: We sought to estimate sensitivity of the fitted IC₅₀ to the level of activity of the control response.

Methods: The inhibition concentration-response relationships were calculated for models with distinct mechanisms of inhibition. In Model I, the inhibitor acts allosterically to stabilize the resting state of the receptor. In Model II, the inhibitor competes with the agonist for a shared binding site. In Model III, the inhibitor stabilizes the desensitized state.

Results: The simulations indicate that the fitted IC₅₀ of the inhibition curve is sensitive to the degree of activity of the control response. In Models I and II, the IC₅₀ of inhibition was increased as the probability of being in the active state (P_A) of the control response increased. In Model III, the IC₅₀ of inhibition was reduced at higher P_A.

Conclusion: We infer that the apparent potency of an inhibitor depends on the P_A of the control response. While the calculations were carried out using the activation and inhibition properties that are representative of the GABA_A receptor, the principles and conclusions apply to a wide variety of receptor-channels.

Electrophysiology of ionotropic GABA receptors

GABA_A receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels and ionotropic receptors of GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in vertebrates. In this review, we discuss the major and diverse roles GABA_A receptors play in the regulation of neuronal communication and the functioning of the brain. GABA_A receptors have complex electrophysiological properties that enable them to mediate different types of currents such as phasic and tonic inhibitory currents. Their activity is finely regulated by membrane voltage, phosphorylation and several ions. GABA_A receptors are pentameric and are assembled from a diverse set of subunits. They are subdivided into numerous subtypes, which differ widely in expression patterns, distribution and electrical activity. Substantial variations in macroscopic neural behavior can emerge from minor differences in structure and molecular activity between subtypes. Therefore, the diversity of GABA_A receptors widens the neuronal repertoire of responses to external signals and contributes to shaping the electrical activity of neurons and other cell types.

Direct Structural Insights into GABAA Receptor Pharmacology

GABA_A receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels that mediate most fast neuronal inhibition in the brain. In addition to their important physiological roles, they are noteworthy in their rich pharmacology; prominent drugs used for anxiety, insomnia, and general anesthesia act through positive modulation of GABA_A receptors. Direct structural information for how these drugs work was absent until recently. Efforts in structural biology over the past few years have revealed how important drug classes and natural products interact with the GABA_A receptor, providing a foundation for studies in dynamics and structure-guided drug design. Here, we review recent developments in GABA_A receptor structural pharmacology, focusing on subunit assemblies of the receptor found at synapses.

Modulation of α1β3γ2 GABAA receptors expressed in X. laevis oocytes using a propofol photoswitch tethered to the transmembrane helix

Tethered photoswitches are molecules with two photo-dependent isomeric forms, each with different actions on their biological targets. They include reactive chemical groups capable of covalently binding to their target. Our aim was to develop a β-subunit-tethered propofol photoswitch (MAP20), as a tool to better study the mechanism of anesthesia through the GABAA α1β3γ2 receptor. We used short spacers between the tether (methanethiosulfonate), the photosensitive moiety (azobenzene), and the ligand (propofol), to allow a precise tethering adjacent to the putative propofol binding site at the β+α- interface of the receptor transmembrane helices (TMs). First, we used molecular modeling to identify possible tethering sites in β3TM3 and α1TM1, and then introduced cysteines in the candidate positions. Two mutant subunits [β3(M283C) and α1(V227C)] showed photomodulation of GABA responses after incubation with MAP20 and illumination with lights at specific wavelengths. The α1β3(M283C)γ2 receptor showed the greatest photomodulation, which decreased as GABA concentration increased. The location of the mutations that produced photomodulation confirmed that the propofol binding site is located in the β+α- interface close to the extracellular side of the transmembrane helices. Tethering the photoswitch to cysteines introduced in the positions homologous to β3M283 in two other subunits (α1W288 and γ2L298) also produced photomodulation, which was not entirely reversible, probably reflecting the different nature of each interface. The results are in agreement with a binding site in the β+α- interface for the anesthetic propofol.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Spectroscopy in Succinic Semialdehyde Dehydrogenase Deficiency

Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) degradation, resulting in elevations of brain GABA and γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Previous magnetic resonance (MR) spectroscopy studies have shown increased levels of Glx in SSADH deficiency patients. Here in this work, we measure brain GABA in a large cohort of SSADH deficiency patients using advanced MR spectroscopy techniques that allow separation of GABA from overlapping metabolite peaks. We observed significant increases in GABA concentrations in SSADH deficiency patients for all 3 brain regions that were evaluated. Although GABA levels were higher in all 3 regions, each region had different patterns in terms of GABA changes with respect to age. We also report results from structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the same cohort compared with age-matched controls. We consistently observed signal hyperintensities in globus pallidus and cerebellar dentate nucleus.

Reduced Activation of the Synaptic-Type GABAA Receptor Following Prolonged Exposure to Low Concentrations of Agonists: Relationship between Tonic Activity and Desensitization

Synaptic GABA_A receptors are alternately exposed to short pulses of a high, millimolar concentration of GABA and prolonged periods of low, micromolar concentration of the transmitter. Prior work has indicated that exposure to micromolar concentrations of GABA can both activate the postsynaptic receptors generating sustained low-amplitude current and desensitize the receptors, thereby reducing the peak amplitude of subsequent synaptic response. However, the precise relationship between tonic activation and reduction of peak response is not known. Here, we have measured the effect of prolonged exposure to GABA or the combination of GABA and the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, which was intended to desensitize a fraction of receptors, on a subsequent response to a high concentration of agonist in human α1β3γ2L receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. We show that the reduction in the peak amplitude of the post-exposure test response correlates with the open probability of the preceding desensitizing response. Curve fitting of the inhibitory relationship yielded an IC₅₀ of 12.5 µM and a Hill coefficient of -1.61. The activation and desensitization data were mechanistically analyzed in the framework of a three-state Resting-Active-Desensitized model. Using the estimated affinity, efficacy, and desensitization parameters, we calculated the amount of desensitization that would accumulate during a long (2-minute) application of GABA or GABA plus allopregnanolone. The results indicate that accumulation of desensitization depends on the level of activity rather than agonist or potentiator concentration per se. We estimate that in the presence of 1 µM GABA, approximately 5% of α1β3γ2L receptors are functionally eliminated because of desensitization. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: We present an analytical approach to quantify and predict the loss of activatable GABA_A receptors due to desensitization in the presence of transmitter and the steroid allopregnanolone. The findings indicate that the peak amplitude of the synaptic response is influenced by ambient GABA and that changes in ambient concentrations of the transmitter and other GABAergic agents can modify tonically and phasically activated synaptic receptors in opposite directions.

Application of the Co-Agonist Concerted Transition Model to Analysis of GABAA Receptor Properties

The co-agonist concerted transition model is a simple and practical solution to analyze various aspects of GABAA receptor function. Several model-based predictions have been verified experimentally in previous reports. We review here the practical implications of the model and demonstrate how it enables simplification of the experimental procedure and data analysis to characterize the effects of mutations or properties of novel ligands. Specifically, we show that the value of EC50 and the magnitude of current response are directly affected by basal activity, and that coapplication of a background agonist acting at a distinct site or use of a gain-of-function mutation can be employed to enable studies of weak activators or mutated receptors with impaired gating. We also show that the ability of one GABAergic agent to potentiate the activity elicited by another is a computable value that depends on the level of constitutive activity of the ion channel and the ability of each agonist to directly activate the receptor. Significantly, the model accurately accounts for situations where the paired agonists interact with the same site compared to distinct sites on the receptor.

Steady-state activation of the high-affinity isoform of the α4β2δ GABAA receptor

Activation of GABA_A receptors consisting of α4, β2 (or β3), and δ subunits is a major contributor to tonic inhibition in several brain regions. The goal of this study was to analyze the function of the α4β2δ receptor in the presence of GABA and other endogenous and clinical activators and modulators under steady-state conditions. We show that the receptor has a high constitutive open probability (~0.1), but is only weakly activated by GABA that has a maximal peak open probability (P_Open,peak) of 0.4, taurine (maximal P_Open,peak = 0.4), or the endogenous steroid allopregnanolone (maximal P_Open,peak = 0.2). The intravenous anesthetic propofol is a full agonist (maximal P_Open,peak = 0.99). Analysis of currents using a cyclic three-state Resting-Active-Desensitized model indicates that the maximal steady-state open probability of the α4β2δ receptor is ~0.45. Steady-state open probability in the presence of combinations of GABA, taurine, propofol, allopregnanolone and/or the inhibitory steroid pregnenolone sulfate closely matched predicted open probability calculated assuming energetic additivity. The results suggest that the receptor is active in the presence of physiological concentrations of GABA and taurine, but, surprisingly, that receptor activity is only weakly potentiated by propofol.

Etomidate and Etomidate Analog Binding and Positive Modulation of γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptors: Evidence for a State-dependent Cutoff Effect

WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC

WHAT THIS ARTICLE TELLS US THAT IS NEW: BACKGROUND:: Naphthalene-etomidate, an etomidate analog containing a bulky phenyl ring substituent group, possesses very low γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor efficacy and acts as an anesthetic-selective competitive antagonist. Using etomidate analogs containing phenyl ring substituents groups that range in volume, we tested the hypothesis that this unusual pharmacology is caused by steric hindrance that reduces binding to the receptor's open state.

METHODS

The positive modulatory potencies and efficacies of etomidate and phenyl ring-substituted etomidate analogs were electrophysiology defined in oocyte-expressed α1β3γ2L GABAA receptors. Their binding affinities to the GABAA receptor's two classes of transmembrane anesthetic binding sites were assessed from their abilities to inhibit receptor labeling by the site-selective photolabels [H]azi-etomidate and tritiated R-5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl) barbituric acid.

RESULTS

The positive modulatory activities of etomidate and phenyl ring-substituted etomidate analogs progressively decreased with substituent group volume, reflecting significant decreases in both potency (P = 0.005) and efficacy (P < 0.0001). Affinity for the GABAA receptor's two β - α anesthetic binding sites similarly decreased with substituent group volume (P = 0.003), whereas affinity for the receptor's α - β/γ - β sites did not (P = 0.804). Introduction of the N265M mutation, which is located at the β - α binding sites and renders GABAA receptors etomidate-insensitive, completely abolished positive modulation by naphthalene-etomidate.

CONCLUSIONS

Steric hindrance selectively reduces phenyl ring-substituted etomidate analog binding affinity to the two β - α anesthetic binding sites on the GABAA receptor's open state, suggesting that the binding pocket where etomidate's phenyl ring lies becomes smaller as the receptor isomerizes from closed to open.

Steady-state activation and modulation of the synaptic-type α1β2γ2L GABAA receptor by combinations of physiological and clinical ligands

The synaptic α1β2γ2 GABAA receptor is activated phasically by presynaptically released GABA. The receptor is considered to be inactive between synaptic events when exposed to ambient GABA because of its low resting affinity to the transmitter. We tested the hypothesis that a combination of physiological and/or clinical positive allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor with ambient GABA generates measurable steady-state activity. Recombinant α1β2γ2L GABAA receptors were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and activated by combinations of low concentrations of orthosteric (GABA, taurine) and allosteric (the steroid allopregnanolone, the anesthetic propofol) agonists, in the absence and presence of the inhibitory steroid pregnenolone sulfate. Steady-state activity was analyzed using the three-state cyclic Resting-Active-Desensitized model. We estimate that the steady-state open probability of the synaptic α1β2γ2L GABAA receptor in the presence of ambient GABA (1 μmol/L), taurine (10 μmol/L), and physiological levels of allopregnanolone (0.01 μmol/L) and pregnenolone sulfate (0.1 μmol/L) is 0.008. Coapplication of a clinical concentration of propofol (1 μmol/L) increases the steady-state open probability to 0.03. Comparison of total charge transfer for phasic and tonic activity indicates that steady-state activity can contribute strongly (~20 to >99%) to integrated activity from the synaptic GABAA receptor.

Steady-State Activation and Modulation of the Concatemeric α1β2γ2L GABAA Receptor

The two-state coagonist model has been successfully used to analyze and predict peak current responses of the γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA_A) receptor. The goal of the present study was to provide a model-based description of GABA_A receptor activity under steady-state conditions after desensitization has occurred. We describe the derivation and properties of the cyclic three-state resting-active-desensitized (RAD) model. The relationship of the model to receptor behavior was tested using concatemeric α1β2γ2 GABA_A receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The receptors were activated by the orthosteric agonists GABA or β-alanine, the allosteric agonist propofol, or combinations of GABA, propofol, pentobarbital, and the steroid allopregnanolone, and the observed steady-state responses were compared with those predicted by the model. A modified RAD model was employed to analyze and describe the actions on steady-state current of the inhibitory steroid pregnenolone sulfate. The findings indicate that the steady-state activity in the presence of multiple active agents that interact with distinct binding sites follows standard energetic additivity. The derived equations enable prediction of peak and steady-state activity in the presence of orthosteric and allosteric agonists, and the inhibitory steroid pregnenolone sulfate. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The study describes derivation and properties of a three-state resting-active-desensitized model. The model and associated equations can be used to analyze and predict peak and steady-state activity in the presence of one or more active agents.

Monod-Wyman-Changeux Allosteric Shift Analysis in Mutant α1β3γ2L GABAA Receptors Indicates Selectivity and Crosstalk among Intersubunit Transmembrane Anesthetic Sites

Propofol, etomidate, and barbiturate anesthetics are allosteric coagonists at pentameric α1β3γ2 GABA_A receptors, modulating channel activation via four biochemically established intersubunit transmembrane pockets. Etomidate selectively occupies the two β ⁺/α ^- pockets, the barbiturate photolabel R-5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl) barbituric acid (R-mTFD-MPAB) occupies homologous α ⁺/β ^- and γ ⁺/β ^- pockets, and propofol occupies all four. Functional studies of mutations at M2-15' or M3-36' loci abutting these pockets provide conflicting results regarding their relative contributions to propofol modulation. We electrophysiologically measured GABA-dependent channel activation in α1β3γ2L or receptors with single M2-15' (α1S270I, β3N265M, and γ2S280W) or M3-36' (α1A291W, β3M286W, and γ2S301W) mutations, in the absence and presence of equipotent clinical range concentrations of etomidate, R-mTFD-MPAB, and propofol. Estimated open probabilities were calculated and analyzed using global two-state Monod-Wyman-Changeux models to derive log(d) parameters proportional to anesthetic-induced channel modulating energies (where d is the allosteric anesthetic shift factor). All mutations reduced the log(d) values for anesthetics occupying both abutting and nonabutting pockets. The Δlog(d) values [log(d, mutant) - log(d, wild type)] for M2-15' mutations abutting an anesthetic's biochemically established binding sites were consistently larger than the Δlog(d) values for nonabutting mutations, although this was not true for the M3-36' mutant Δlog(d) values. The sums of the anesthetic-associated Δlog(d) values for sets of M2-15' or M3-36' mutations were all much larger than the wild-type log(d) values. Mutant Δlog(d) values qualitatively reflect anesthetic site occupancy patterns. However, the lack of Δlog(d) additivity undermines quantitative comparisons of distinct site contributions to anesthetic modulation because the mutations impaired both abutting anesthetic binding effects and positive cooperativity between anesthetic binding sites.

Carbonic anhydrase enzymes: Likely targets for inhalational anesthetics

Inhalational anesthetics such as isoflurane, desflurane and halothane are the mainstay medications for surgical procedures; upon inhalation, they produce anesthesia described as reversible unconsciousness with the features of amnesia, sleep, immobility and analgesia. To date, how they produce anesthesia is unknown. This study proposes that carbonic anhydrase enzymes are likely targets mediating the actions of inhalational anesthetics. Carbonic anhydrase enzymes, commonly expressed in living organisms, utilize carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a substrate and can generate H⁺ and HCO₃^- from CO₂ with a great efficiency. There are remarkable lines of evidence for their likely roles in mediating anesthetic actions. Firstly, carbonic anhydrase enzymes are extensively expressed in the brain and spinal cord, and their importance in the brain activity, especially for the GABA and NMDA receptor signaling pathways, has been demonstrated in numerous studies. According to these studies, they provide HCO₃^- for GABA-A receptor activities and also buffer HCO₃^- excess resulting from NMDA receptor activation. Activation of GABA-A and inhibition of NMDA receptors are associated with the induction of anesthesia by the intravenous general anesthetics propofol and ketamine, respectively. Secondly, the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors topiramate and zonisamide are effectively used in the treatment of epilepsy for decades; their chronic use results in the requirement of increased levels of amobarbital in order to produce anesthesia in the epileptic patients during WADA test. In addition, given that CO₂ is a substrate for these enzymes, their tertiary structure is likely has a hydrophobic pocket suitable for the anesthetic molecules to bind. Inhalational anesthetic molecules, which are lipophilic and inert in nature, have an ability to cross the membranes and inhibit carbonic anhydrases, which might not be accessible by topiramate and zonisamide. Unlike carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, they could bind to the hydrophobic pocket for CO₂ molecules and produce a profound effect called anesthesia. Finally, there is a great deal of similarities between the physiological actions of inhalational anesthetics and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors; moreover well-known side effects of inhalational anesthetics could be associated with the inhibition of carbonic anhydrases. Therefore, this article presents a hypothesis that the anesthetic actions of inhalational anesthetics could be due to their inhibitory effects on the carbonic anhydrases. Investigating this hypothesis might lead to the development of new safer anesthetics, and more importantly it might reveal an endogenous anesthetic pathway, in which the carbonic anhydrase system is a component along with the GABA-A and NMDA receptor systems.

Analysis of GABAA Receptor Activation by Combinations of Agonists Acting at the Same or Distinct Binding Sites

Under both physiologic and clinical conditions GABA_A receptors are exposed to multiple agonists, including the transmitter GABA, endogenous or exogenous neuroactive steroids, and various GABAergic anesthetic and sedative drugs. The functional output of the receptor reflects the interplay among all active agents. We have investigated the activation of the concatemeric α1β2γ2L GABA_A receptor by combinations of agonists. Simulations of receptor activity using the coagonist concerted transition model demonstrate that the response amplitude in the presence of agonist combinations is highly dependent on whether the paired agonists interact with the same or distinct sites. The experimental data for receptor activation by agonist combinations were in agreement with the established views of the overlap of binding sites for several pairs of orthosteric (GABA, β-alanine, and piperidine-4-sulfonic acid) and/or allosteric agents (propofol, pentobarbital, and several neuroactive steroids). Conversely, the degree of potentiation when two GABAergic agents are coapplied can be used to determine whether the compounds act by binding to the same or distinct sites. We show that common interaction sites mediate the actions of 5α- and 5β-reduced neuroactive steroids, and natural and enantiomeric steroids. Furthermore, the results indicate that the anesthetics propofol and pentobarbital interact with partially shared binding sites. We propose that the findings may be used to predict the efficacy of drug mixtures in combination therapy and thus have potential clinical relevance.

Applying the Monod-Wyman-Changeux Allosteric Activation Model to Pseudo-Steady-State Responses from GABAA Receptors

The Monod-Wyman-Changeux (MWC) cyclic model was described as a kinetic scheme to explain enzyme function and modulation more than 50 years ago and was proposed as a model for understanding the activation of transmitter-gated channels soon afterward. More recently, the MWC model has been used to describe the activation of the GABA_A receptor by the transmitter, GABA, and drugs that bind to separate sites on the receptor. It is most interesting that the MWC formalism can also describe the interactions among drugs that activate the receptor. In this review, we describe properties of the MWC model that have been explored experimentally using the GABA_A receptor, summarize analytical expressions for activation and interaction for drugs, and briefly review experimental results.

Enhanced GABAergic actions resulting from the coapplication of the steroid 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnane-11,20-dione (alfaxalone) with propofol or diazepam

Many GABAergic drugs are in clinical use as anesthetics, sedatives, or anxiolytics. We have investigated the actions of the combinations of the neuroactive steroid 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnane-11,20-dione (alfaxalone) with the intravenous anesthetic propofol or the benzodiazepine diazepam. The goal of the study was to determine whether coapplication of alfaxalone reduces the effective doses and concentrations of propofol and diazepam. Behavioral effects of alfaxalone, propofol, diazepam, and the combinations of the drugs were evaluated during a 30-min activity test in mice. Functional effects of the individual drugs and drug combinations were tested by measuring the decay times of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents in rat hippocampal neurons, and peak current responses from heterologously expressed concatemeric α1β2γ2L GABA_A receptors. Co-administration of alfaxalone increased the sedative actions of propofol and diazepam in mice. The combination of alfaxalone with propofol or diazepam increased the decay times of sIPSCs and shifted the concentration-response relationships for GABA-activated receptors to lower transmitter concentrations. We infer that alfaxalone acts as a co-agonist to enhance the GABAergic effects of propofol and diazepam. We propose that co-administration of alfaxalone, and possibly other neuroactive steroids, can be employed to reduce dosage requirements for propofol and diazepam.

Combining Mutations and Electrophysiology to Map Anesthetic Sites on Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

General anesthetics are known to act in part by binding to and altering the function of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels such as nicotinic acetylcholine and γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors. Combining heterologous expression of the subunits that assemble to form these ion channels, mutagenesis techniques and voltage-clamp electrophysiology have enabled a variety of "structure-function" approaches to questions of where anesthetic binds to these ion channels and how they enhance or inhibit channel function. Here, we review the evolution of concepts and experimental strategies during the last three decades, since molecular biological and electrophysiological tools became widely used. Topics covered include: (1) structural models as interpretive frameworks, (2) various electrophysiological approaches and their limitations, (3) Monod-Wyman-Changeux allosteric models as functional frameworks, (4) structural strategies including chimeras and point mutations, and (5) methods based on cysteine substitution and covalent modification. We discuss in particular depth the experimental design considerations for substituted cysteine modification-protection studies.

High Constitutive Activity Accounts for the Combination of Enhanced Direct Activation and Reduced Potentiation in Mutated GABAA Receptors

GABA_A receptors activated by the transmitter GABA are potentiated by several allosterically acting drugs, including the intravenous anesthetic propofol. Propofol can also directly activate the receptor, albeit at higher concentrations. Previous functional studies have identified amino acid residues whose substitution reduces potentiation of GABA-activated receptors by propofol while enhancing the ability of propofol to directly activate the receptor. One interpretation of such observations is that the mutation has specific effects on the sites or processes involved in potentiation or activation. We show here that divergent effects on potentiation and direct activation can be mediated by increased constitutive open probability in the mutant receptor without any specific effect on the interactions between the allosteric drug and the receptor. By simulating GABA_A receptor activity using the concerted transition model, we demonstrate that the predicted degree of potentiation is reduced as the level of constitutive activity increases. The model further predicts that a potentiating effect of an allosteric modulator is a computable value that depends on the level of constitutive activity, the amplitude of the response to the agonist, and the amplitude of the direct activating response to the modulator. Specific predictions were confirmed by electrophysiological data from the binary α1β3 and concatemeric ternary β2α1γ2L+β2α1 GABA_A receptors. The corollaries of reduced potentiation due to increased constitutive activity are isobolograms that conform to simple additivity and a loss of separation between the concentration-response relationships for direct activation and potentiation.

Recent progress on the molecular pharmacology of propofol

The precise mechanism by which propofol enhances GABAergic transmission remains unclear, but much progress has been made regarding the underlying structural and dynamic mechanisms. Furthermore, it is now clear that propofol has additional molecular targets, many of which are functionally influenced at concentrations achieved clinically. Focusing primarily on molecular targets, this brief review attempts to summarize some of this recent progress while pointing out knowledge gaps and controversies. It is not intended to be comprehensive but rather to stimulate further thought, discussion, and study on the mechanisms by which propofol produces its pleiotropic effects.

Comparison of αβδ and αβγ GABAA receptors: Allosteric modulation and identification of subunit arrangement by site-selective general anesthetics

GABA_A receptors play a dominant role in mediating inhibition in the mature mammalian brain, and defects of GABAergic neurotransmission contribute to the pathogenesis of a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Two types of GABAergic inhibition have been described: αβγ receptors mediate phasic inhibition in response to transient high-concentrations of synaptic GABA release, and αβδ receptors produce tonic inhibitory currents activated by low-concentration extrasynaptic GABA. Both αβδ and αβγ receptors are important targets for general anesthetics, which induce apparently different changes both in GABA-dependent receptor activation and in desensitization in currents mediated by αβγ vs. αβδ receptors. Many of these differences are explained by correcting for the high agonist efficacy of GABA at most αβγ receptors vs. much lower efficacy at αβδ receptors. The stoichiometry and subunit arrangement of recombinant αβγ receptors are well established as β-α-γ-β-α, while those of αβδ receptors remain controversial. Importantly, some potent general anesthetics selectively bind in transmembrane inter-subunit pockets of αβγ receptors: etomidate acts at β⁺/α^- interfaces, and the barbiturate R-5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl) barbituric acid (R-mTFD-MPAB) acts at α⁺/β^- and γ⁺/β^- interfaces. Thus, these drugs are useful as structural probes in αβδ receptors formed from free subunits or concatenated subunit assemblies designed to constrain subunit arrangement. Although a definite conclusion cannot be drawn, studies using etomidate and R-mTFD-MPAB support the idea that recombinant α1β3δ receptors may share stoichiometry and subunit arrangement with α1β3γ2 receptors.

Propofol Is an Allosteric Agonist with Multiple Binding Sites on Concatemeric Ternary GABAA Receptors

GABA_A receptors can be directly activated and potentiated by the intravenous anesthetic propofol. Previous photolabeling, modeling, and functional data have identified two binding domains through which propofol acts on the GABA_A receptor. These domains are defined by the β(M286) residue at the β"+"-α"-" interface in the transmembrane region and the β(Y143) residue near the β"-" surface in the junction between the extracellular and transmembrane domains. In the ternary receptor, there are predicted to be two copies of each class of sites, for a total of four sites per receptor. We used β2α1γ2L and β2α1 concatemeric constructs to determine the functional effects of the β(Y143W) and β(M286W) mutations to gain insight into the number of functional binding sites for propofol and the energetic contributions stemming from propofol binding to the individual sites. A mutation of each of the four sites affected the response to propofol, indicating that each of the four sites is functional in the wild-type receptor. The mutations mainly impaired stabilization of the open state by propofol, i.e., reduced gating efficacy. The effects were similar for mutations at either site and were largely additive and independent of the presence of other Y143W or M286W mutations in the receptor. The two classes of sites appeared to differ in affinity for propofol, with the site affected by M286W having about a 2-fold higher affinity. Our analysis indicates there may be one or two additional functionally equivalent binding sites for propofol, other than those modified by substitutions at β(Y143) and β(M286).

GABA Type A Receptor Activation in the Allosteric Coagonist Model Framework: Relationship between EC50 and Basal Activity

The concerted transition model for multimeric proteins is a simple formulation for analyzing the behavior of transmitter-gated ion channels. We used the model to examine the relationship between the EC₅₀ for activation of the GABA type A (GABA_A) receptor by the transmitter GABA and basal activity employing concatemeric ternary GABA_A receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Basal activity, reflecting the receptor function in the absence of the transmitter, can be changed either by mutation to increase constitutive activity or by the addition of a second agonist (acting at a different site) to increase background activity. The model predicts that either mechanism for producing a change in basal activity will result in identical effects on the EC₅₀ We examined receptor activation by GABA while changing the level of basal activity with the allosterically acting anesthetics propofol, pentobarbital, or alfaxalone. We found that the relationship between EC₅₀ and basal activity was well described by the concerted transition model. Changes in the basal activity by gain-of-function mutations also resulted in predictable changes in the EC₅₀ Finally, we altered the number of GABA-binding sites by a mutation and again found that the relationship could be well described by the model. Overall, the results support the idea that interactions between the transmitter GABA and the allosteric agonists propofol, pentobarbital, or alfaxalone can be understood as reflecting additive and independent free energy changes, without assuming any specific interactions.

Competitive Antagonism of Anesthetic Action at the γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptor by a Novel Etomidate Analog with Low Intrinsic Efficacy

BACKGROUND

The authors characterized the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor pharmacology of the novel etomidate analog naphthalene-etomidate, a potential lead compound for the development of anesthetic-selective competitive antagonists.

METHODS

The positive modulatory potencies and efficacies of etomidate and naphthalene-etomidate were defined in oocyte-expressed α1β3γ2L γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors using voltage clamp electrophysiology. Using the same technique, the ability of naphthalene-etomidate to reduce currents evoked by γ-aminobutyric acid alone or γ-aminobutyric acid potentiated by etomidate, propofol, pentobarbital, and diazepam was quantified. The binding affinity of naphthalene-etomidate to the transmembrane anesthetic binding sites of the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor was determined from its ability to inhibit receptor photoaffinity labeling by the site-selective photolabels [H]azi-etomidate and R-[H]5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl) barbituric acid.

RESULTS

In contrast to etomidate, naphthalene-etomidate only weakly potentiated γ-aminobutyric acid-evoked currents and induced little direct activation even at a near-saturating aqueous concentration. It inhibited labeling of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors by [H]azi-etomidate and R-[H]5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl) barbituric acid with similar half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of 48 μM (95% CI, 28 to 81 μM) and 33 μM (95% CI, 20 to 54 μM). It also reduced the positive modulatory actions of anesthetics (propofol > etomidate ~ pentobarbital) but not those of γ-aminobutyric acid or diazepam. At 300 μM, naphthalene-etomidate increased the half-maximal potentiating propofol concentration from 6.0 μM (95% CI, 4.4 to 8.0 μM) to 36 μM (95% CI, 17 to 78 μM) without affecting the maximal response obtained at high propofol concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Naphthalene-etomidate is a very low-efficacy etomidate analog that exhibits the pharmacology of an anesthetic competitive antagonist at the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor.

A chimeric prokaryotic-eukaryotic pentameric ligand gated ion channel reveals interactions between the extracellular and transmembrane domains shape neurosteroid modulation

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) are the targets of several clinical and endogenous allosteric modulators including anesthetics and neurosteroids. Molecular mechanisms underlying allosteric drug modulation are poorly understood. Here, we constructed a chimeric pLGIC by fusing the extracellular domain (ECD) of the proton-activated, cation-selective bacterial channel GLIC to the transmembrane domain (TMD) of the human ρ1 chloride-selective GABAAR, and tested the hypothesis that drug actions are regulated locally in the domain that houses its binding site. The chimeric channels were proton-gated and chloride-selective demonstrating the GLIC ECD was functionally coupled to the GABAρ TMD. Channels were blocked by picrotoxin and inhibited by pentobarbital, etomidate and propofol. The point mutation, ρ TMD W328M, conferred positive modulation and direct gating by pentobarbital. The data suggest that the structural machinery mediating general anesthetic modulation resides in the TMD. Proton-activation and neurosteroid modulation of the GLIC-ρ chimeric channels, however, did not simply mimic their respective actions on GLIC and GABAρ revealing that across domain interactions between the ECD and TMD play important roles in determining their actions. Proton-induced current responses were biphasic suggesting that the chimeric channels contain an additional proton sensor. Neurosteroid modulation of the GLIC-ρ chimeric channels by the stereoisomers, 5α-THDOC and 5β-THDOC, were swapped compared to their actions on GABAρ indicating that positive versus negative neurosteroid modulation is not encoded solely in the TMD nor by neurosteroid isomer structure but is dependent on specific interdomain connections between the ECD and TMD. Our data reveal a new mechanism for shaping neurosteroid modulation.

The Actions of Drug Combinations on the GABAA Receptor Manifest as Curvilinear Isoboles of Additivity

Drug interactions are often analyzed in terms of isobolograms. In the isobologram, the line connecting the axial points corresponding to the concentrations of two different drugs that produce an effect of the same magnitude is termed an isobole of additivity. Although the isobole of additivity can be a straight line in some special cases, previous work has proposed that it is curvilinear when the two drugs differ in their maximal effects or Hill slopes. Modulators of transmitter-gated ion channels have a wide range of maximal effects as well as Hill slopes, suggesting that the isoboles for drug actions on ion channel function are not linear. In this study, we have conducted an analysis of direct activation and potentiation of the human α1β2γ2L GABA_A receptor to demonstrate that: 1) curvilinear isoboles of additivity are predicted by a concerted transition model where the binding of each GABAergic drug additively and independently reduces the free energy of the open receptor compared with the closed receptor; and 2) experimental data for receptor activation using the agonist pair of GABA and propofol or potentiation of responses to a low concentration of GABA by the drug pair of alfaxalone and propofol agree very well with predictions. The approach assuming independent energetic contributions from GABAergic drugs enables, at least for the drug combinations tested, a straightforward method to accurately predict functional responses to any combination of concentrations.

Mapping General Anesthetic Sites in Heteromeric γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptors Reveals a Potential For Targeting Receptor Subtypes

IV general anesthetics, including propofol, etomidate, alphaxalone, and barbiturates, produce important actions by enhancing γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor activation. In this article, we review scientific studies that have located and mapped IV anesthetic sites using photoaffinity labeling and substituted cysteine modification protection. These anesthetics bind in transmembrane pockets between subunits of typical synaptic GABAA receptors, and drugs that display stereoselectivity also show remarkably selective interactions with distinct interfacial sites. These results suggest strategies for developing new drugs that selectively modulate distinct GABAA receptor subtypes.

Propofol Anesthesia Is Reduced in Phospholipase C-Related Inactive Protein Type-1 Knockout Mice

The GABA type A receptor (GABA_A-R) is a major target of intravenous anesthetics. Phospholipase C-related inactive protein type-1 (PRIP-1) is important in GABA_A-R phosphorylation and membrane trafficking. In this study, we investigated the role of PRIP-1 in general anesthetic action. The anesthetic effects of propofol, etomidate, and pentobarbital were evaluated in wild-type and PRIP-1 knockout (PRIP-1 KO) mice by measuring the latency and duration of loss of righting reflex (LORR) and loss of tail-pinch withdrawal response (LTWR). The effect of pretreatment with okadaic acid (OA), a protein phosphatase 1/2A inhibitor, on propofol- and etomidate-induced LORR was also examined. PRIP-1 deficiency provided the reduction of LORR and LTWR induced by propofol but not by etomidate or pentobarbital, indicating that PRIP-1 could determine the potency of the anesthetic action of propofol. Pretreatment with OA recovered the anesthetic potency induced by propofol in PRIP-1 KO mice. OA injection enhanced phosphorylation of cortical the GABA_A-R β3 subunit in PRIP-1 KO mice. These results suggest that PRIP-1-mediated GABA_A-R β3 subunit phosphorylation might be involved in the general anesthetic action induced by propofol but not by etomidate or pentobarbital.

Neonatal Propofol and Etomidate Exposure Enhance Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission in Hippocampal Cornus Ammonis 1 Pyramidal Neurons

Background:

Propofol and etomidate are the most important intravenous general anesthetics in the current clinical use and that mediate gamma-aminobutyric acid's (GABAergic) synaptic transmission. However, their long-term effects on GABAergic synaptic transmission induced by neonatal propofol or etomidate exposure remain unclear. We investigated the long-term GABAergic neurotransmission alterations, following neonatal propofol and etomidate administration.

Methods:

Sprague-Dawley rat pups at postnatal days 4–6 were underwent 6-h-long propofol-induced or 5-h-long etomidate-induced anesthesia. We performed whole-cell patch-clamp recording from pyramidal cells in the cornus ammonis 1 area of acute hippocampal slices of postnatal 80–90 days. Spontaneous and miniature inhibitory GABAergic currents (spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents [sIPSCs] and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents [mIPSCs]) and their kinetic characters were measured. The glutamatergic tonic effect on inhibitory transmission and the effect of bumetanide on neonatal propofol exposure were also examined.

Results:

Neonatal propofol exposure significantly increased the frequency of mIPSCs (from 1.87 ± 0.35 Hz to 3.43 ± 0.51 Hz, P < 0.05) and did not affect the amplitude of mIPSCs and sIPSCs. Both propofol and etomidate slowed the decay time of mIPSCs kinetics (168.39 ± 27.91 ms and 267.02 ± 100.08 ms vs. 68.18 ± 12.43 ms; P < 0.05). Bumetanide significantly blocked the frequency increase and reversed the kinetic alteration of mIPSCs induced by neonatal propofol exposure (3.01 ± 0.45 Hz and 94.30 ± 32.56 ms).

Conclusions:

Neonatal propofol and etomidate exposure has long-term effects on inhibitory GABAergic transmission. Propofol might act at pre- and post-synaptic GABA receptor A (GABA_A) receptors within GABAergic synapses and impairs the glutamatergic tonic input to GABAergic synapses; etomidate might act at the postsynaptic site.

Multiple Non-Equivalent Interfaces Mediate Direct Activation of GABAA Receptors by Propofol

Abstract: Background

Propofol is a sedative agent that at clinical concentrations acts by allosterically activating or potentiating the γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA_A) receptor. Mutational, modeling, and photolabeling studies with propofol and its analogues have identified potential interaction sites in the transmembrane domain of the receptor. At the “+” of the β subunit, in the β-α interface, meta-azipropofol labels the M286 residue in the third transmembrane domain. Substitution of this residue with tryptophan results in loss of potentiation by propofol. At the “-” side of the β subunit, in the α-β interface (or β-β interface, in the case of homomeric β receptors), ortho-propofol diazirine labels the H267 residue in the second transmembrane domain. Structural modeling indicates that the β(H267) residue lines a cavity that docks propofol with favorable interaction energy.

Method

We used two-electrode voltage clamp to determine the functional effects of mutations to the 
“+” and “-” sides of the β subunit on activation of the α1β3 GABA_A receptor by propofol.

Results

We found that while the individual mutations had a small effect, the combination of the M286W mutation with tryptophan mutations of selected residues at the α-β interface leads to strong reduction in gating efficacy for propofol.

Conclusion

We conclude that α1β3 GABA_A receptors can be activated by propofol interactions with the β-β, α-β, and β-α interfaces, where distinct, non-equivalent regions control channel gating. Any interface can mediate activation, hence substitutions at all interfaces are required for loss of activation by propofol.

Correction for Inhibition Leads to an Allosteric Co-Agonist Model for Pentobarbital Modulation and Activation of α1β3γ2L GABAA Receptors

Background

Pentobarbital, like propofol and etomidate, produces important general anesthetic effects through GABA_A receptors. Photolabeling also indicates that pentobarbital binds to some of the same sites where propofol and etomidate act. Quantitative allosteric co-agonist models for propofol and etomidate account for modulatory and agonist effects in GABA_A receptors and have proven valuable in establishing drug site characteristics and for functional analysis of mutants. We therefore sought to establish an allosteric co-agonist model for pentobarbital activation and modulation of α1β3γ2L receptors, using a novel approach to first correct pentobarbital activation data for inhibitory effects in the same concentration range.

Methods

Using oocyte-expressed α1β3γ2L GABA_A receptors and two-microelectrode voltage-clamp, we quantified modulation of GABA responses by a low pentobarbital concentration and direct effects of high pentobarbital concentrations, the latter displaying mixed agonist and inhibitory effects. We then isolated and quantified pentobarbital inhibition in activated receptors using a novel single-sweep “notch” approach, and used these results to correct steady-state direct activation for inhibition.

Results

Combining results for GABA modulation and corrected direct activation, we estimated receptor open probability and optimized parameters for a Monod-Wyman-Changeux allosteric co-agonist model. Inhibition by pentobarbital was consistent with two sites with IC₅₀s near 1 mM, while co-agonist model parameters suggest two allosteric pentobarbital agonist sites characterized by K_PB ≈ 5 mM and high efficacy. The results also indicate that pentobarbital may be a more efficacious agonist than GABA.

Conclusions

Our novel approach to quantifying both inhibitory and co-agonist effects of pentobarbital provides a basis for future structure-function analyses of GABA_A receptor mutations in putative pentobarbital binding sites.

A Cysteine Substitution Probes β3H267 Interactions with Propofol and Other Potent Anesthetics in α1β3γ2L γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptors

BACKGROUND

Anesthetic contact residues in γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors have been identified using photolabels, including two propofol derivatives. O-propofol diazirine labels H267 in β3 and α1β3 receptors, whereas m-azi-propofol labels other residues in intersubunit clefts of α1β3. Neither label has been studied in αβγ receptors, the most common isoform in mammalian brain. In αβγ receptors, other anesthetic derivatives photolabel m-azi-propofol-labeled residues, but not βH267. The authors' structural homology model of α1β3γ2L receptors suggests that β3H267 may abut some of these sites.

METHODS

Substituted cysteine modification-protection was used to test β3H267C interactions with four potent anesthetics: propofol, etomidate, alphaxalone, and R-5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirinylphenyl) barbituric acid (mTFD-MPAB). The authors expressed α1β3γ2L or α1β3H267Cγ2L GABAA receptors in Xenopus oocytes. The authors used voltage clamp electrophysiology to assess receptor sensitivity to γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and anesthetics and to compare p-chloromercuribenzenesulfonate modification rates with GABA versus GABA plus anesthetics.

RESULTS

Enhancement of low GABA (eliciting 5% of maximum) responses by equihypnotic concentrations of all four anesthetics was similar in α1β3γ2L and α1β3H267Cγ2L receptors (n > 3). Direct activation of α1β3H267Cγ2L receptors, but not α1β3γ2L, by mTFD-MPAB and propofol was significantly greater than the other anesthetics. Modification of β3H267C by p-chloromercuribenzenesulfonate (n > 4) was rapid and accelerated by GABA. Only mTFD-MPAB slowed β3H267C modification (approximately twofold; P = 0.011).

CONCLUSIONS

β3H267 in α1β3γ2L GABAA receptors contacts mTFD-MPAB, but not propofol. The study results suggest that β3H267 is near the periphery of one or both transmembrane intersubunit (α+/β- and γ+/β-) pockets where both mTFD-MPAB and propofol bind.

Mutational Analysis of the Putative High-Affinity Propofol Binding Site in Human β3 Homomeric GABAA Receptors

Propofol is a sedative and anesthetic agent that can both activate GABA(A) receptors and potentiate receptor activation elicited by submaximal concentrations of the transmitter. A recent modeling study of the β3 homomeric GABA(A) receptor postulated a high-affinity propofol binding site in a hydrophobic pocket in the middle of a triangular cleft lined by the M1 and M2 membrane-spanning domains of one subunit and the M2 domain of the neighboring subunit. The goal of the present study was to gain functional evidence for the involvement of this pocket in the actions of propofol. Human β3 and α1β3 receptors were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, and the effects of substitutions of selected residues were probed on channel activation by propofol and pentobarbital. The data demonstrate the vital role of the β3(Y143), β3(F221), β3(Q224), and β3(T266) residues in the actions of propofol but not pentobarbital in β3 receptors. The effects of β3(Y143W) and β3(Q224W) on activation by propofol are likely steric because propofol analogs with less bulky ortho substituents activated both wild-type and mutant receptors. The T266W mutation removed activation by propofol in β3 homomeric receptors; however, this mutation alone or in combination with a homologous mutation (I271W) in the α1 subunit had almost no effect on activation properties in α1β3 heteromeric receptors. We hypothesize that heteromeric α1β3 receptors can be activated by propofol interactions with β3-β3, α1-β3, and β3-α1 interfaces, but the exact locations of the binding site and/or nature of interactions vary in different classes of interfaces.

Assessment of subunit-dependent direct gating and allosteric modulatory effects of carisoprodol at GABA(A) receptors

Carisoprodol is a widely prescribed muscle relaxant, abuse of which has grown considerably in recent years. It directly activates and allosterically modulates α1β2γ2 GABAARs, although the site(s) of action are unknown. To gain insight into the actions of carisoprodol, subunit-dependent effects of this drug were assessed. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings were obtained from HEK293 cells expressing α1β2, α1β3 or αxβzγ2 (where x = 1-6 and z = 1-3) GABAARs, and in receptors incorporating the δ subunit (modeling extrasynaptic receptors). The ability to directly gate and allosterically potentiate GABA-gated currents was observed for all configurations. Presence or absence of the γ2 subunit did not affect the ability of carisoprodol to directly gate or allosterically modulate the receptor. Presence of the β1 subunit conferred highest efficacy for direct activation relative to maximum GABA currents, while presence of the β2 subunit conferred highest efficacy for allosteric modulation of the GABA response. With regard to α subunits, carisoprodol was most efficacious at enhancing the actions of GABA in receptors incorporating the α1 subunit. The ability to directly gate the receptor was generally comparable regardless of the α subunit isoform, although receptors incorporating the α3 subunit showed significantly reduced direct gating efficacy and affinity. In extrasynaptic (α1β3δ and α4β3δ) receptors, carisoprodol had greater efficacy than GABA as a direct gating agonist. In addition, carisoprodol allosterically potentiated both EC20 and saturating GABA concentrations in these receptors. In assessing voltage-dependence, we found direct gating and inhibitory effects were insensitive to membrane voltage, whereas allosteric modulatory effects were affected by membrane voltage. Our findings demonstrate direct and allosteric effects of carisoprodol at synaptic and extrasynpatic GABAARs and that subunit isoform influences these effects.

Synaptic-type α1β2γ2L GABAA receptors produce large persistent currents in the presence of ambient GABA and anesthetic drugs

Synaptic GABAA receptors respond to synaptically released GABA and are considered to be unaffected by the low levels of ambient transmitter in the brain. We show that synaptic-type α1β2γ2L GABAA receptors expressed in HEK293 cells respond with large steady-state currents to combinations of a low concentration (0.5 μM) of GABA and clinically used GABAergic modulators propofol, etomidate, or pentobarbital or the steroid alphaxalone. At a maximally effective concentration of modulator, the current levels at the end of 2-minute applications of drug combinations were >10% of the peak response to saturating GABA. In the absence of modulators, 0.5 μM GABA generated a steady-state response of 1% of the peak response to saturating GABA. The concentration-response curves for enhancement of steady-state currents by propofol, etomidate, pentobarbital, or alphaxalone were at similar or lower drug concentrations compared with concentration-response relationships for enhancement of peak responses. We propose that modulation of tonically activated synaptic-type GABAA receptors contributes to the clinical actions of sedative drugs.

Allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors via multiple drug-binding sites

GABAA receptors are ligand-gated ion channels composed of five subunits that can be opened by GABA and be modulated by multiple pharmacologically and clinically important drugs. Over the time, hundreds of compounds from different structural classes have been demonstrated to modulate, directly activate, or inhibit GABAA receptors, and most of these compounds interact with more than one binding site at these receptors. Crystal structures of proteins and receptors homologous to GABAA receptors as well as homology modeling studies have provided insights into the possible location of ligand interaction sites. Some of these sites have been identified by mutagenesis, photolabeling, and docking studies. For most of these ligands, however, binding sites are not known. Due to the high flexibility of GABAA receptors and the existence of multiple drug-binding sites, the unequivocal identification of interaction sites for individual drugs is extremely difficult. The existence of multiple GABAA receptor subtypes with distinct subunit composition, the contribution of distinct subunit sequences to binding sites of different receptor subtypes, as well as the observation that even subunits not directly contributing to a binding site are able to influence affinity and efficacy of drugs, contribute to a unique pharmacology of each GABAA receptor subtype. Thus, each receptor subtype has to be investigated to identify a possible subtype selectivity of a compound. Although multiple binding sites make GABAA receptor pharmacology even more complicated, the exploitation of ligand interaction with novel-binding sites also offers additional possibilities for a subtype-selective modulation of GABAA receptors.

Mutations at beta N265 in γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors alter both binding affinity and efficacy of potent anesthetics

Etomidate and propofol are potent general anesthetics that act via GABAA receptor allosteric co-agonist sites located at transmembrane β+/α- inter-subunit interfaces. Early experiments in heteromeric receptors identified βN265 (M2-15') on β2 and β3 subunits as an important determinant of sensitivity to these drugs. Mechanistic analyses suggest that substitution with serine, the β1 residue at this position, primarily reduces etomidate efficacy, while mutation to methionine eliminates etomidate sensitivity and might prevent drug binding. However, the βN265 residue has not been photolabeled with analogs of either etomidate or propofol. Furthermore, substituted cysteine modification studies find no propofol protection at this locus, while etomidate protection has not been tested. Thus, evidence of contact between βN265 and potent anesthetics is lacking and it remains uncertain how mutations alter drug sensitivity. In the current study, we first applied heterologous α1β2N265Cγ2L receptor expression in Xenopus oocytes, thiol-specific aqueous probe modification, and voltage-clamp electrophysiology to test whether etomidate inhibits probe reactions at the β-265 sidechain. Using up to 300 µM etomidate, we found both an absence of etomidate effects on α1β2N265Cγ2L receptor activity and no inhibition of thiol modification. To gain further insight into anesthetic insensitive βN265M mutants, we applied indirect structure-function strategies, exploiting second mutations in α1β2/3γ2L GABAA receptors. Using α1M236C as a modifiable and anesthetic-protectable site occupancy reporter in β+/α- interfaces, we found that βN265M reduced apparent anesthetic affinity for receptors in both resting and GABA-activated states. βN265M also impaired the transduction of gating effects associated with α1M236W, a mutation that mimics β+/α- anesthetic site occupancy. Our results show that βN265M mutations dramatically reduce the efficacy/transduction of anesthetics bound in β+/α- sites, and also significantly reduce anesthetic affinity for resting state receptors. These findings are consistent with a role for βN265 in anesthetic binding within the β+/α- transmembrane sites.