Posttraumatic Stress in Mothers While Their Preterm Infants Are in the Newborn Intensive Care Unit: A Mixed Research Synthesis

Associations between prematurity, postpartum anxiety, neonatal intensive care unit admission, and stress

Introduction

It is well established that a premature birth increases the likelihood of developing anxiety during the postpartum period, and that the environment of the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) might be a contributing factor. Mothers of earlier premature infants may experience these anxieties to a higher degree compared to mothers of later premature infants. The aim of this study was to explore the association between prematurity and postpartum-specific anxiety, and the relationship between postpartum-specific anxiety and stress in the NICU.

Materials and methods

Mothers (N = 237) of infants aged between birth and 12 months completed an online survey containing the Postpartum Specific Anxiety Scale - Research Short Form (PSAS-RSF) and the Parental Stressor Scale: Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (PSS:NICU). Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the relationship between gestational age and postpartum-specific anxiety, with one-way ANOVAs used to analyze this relationship with respect to categories of gestational age. Hierarchical regression models analyzed the relationship between postpartum-specific anxiety and stress in the NICU.

Results

For the PSAS-RSF, Practical Infant Care Anxieties (p = 0.001), Maternal Competence and Attachment Anxieties (p = 0.033), and Infant Safety and Welfare Anxieties (p = 0.020) were significantly associated with week of gestation. Practical Infant Care and Infant Safety and Welfare Anxieties were significantly higher for mothers of late premature infants, compared to mothers of term infants (p < 0.001; p = 0.019). There were no significant between-group differences with respect to Maternal Competence and Attachment Anxieties. After controlling for potential confounders, Infant Safety and Welfare Anxieties were significantly associated with increased stress in the NICU (p < 0.001) as measured by the PSS:NICU.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight the need for interventions for mothers with premature infants, which specifically target anxieties reflected in the PSAS-RSF, such as routine care and increasing maternal self-efficacy.

Application of Trauma-Informed Care Principles to Care Needs Identified by Mothers of NICU-Hospitalized Children

Systematic uptake of family-centered care (FCC) interventions remains challenging and frequently suboptimal in many neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Across NICUs in the United States, integrating family members as partners in infant caregiving and decision-making has not been well supported and routine screening and provision of psychological support for parents remains inadequate. Trauma-informed care (TIC) may offer a more comprehensive approach to NICU care which can encompass FCC principles and promote family recovery and resilience by recognizing and responding to the traumas experienced by NICU infants and families. The current paper aimed to understand needs identified by mothers of NICU-hospitalized children and reports a focused analysis of one-on-one interview data (n = 13 mothers) collected during a larger mixed methods study. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to understand needs identified by mothers and to explore how these needs aligned with TIC principles. Six themes were identified and subsequently examined in the context of the principles of TIC: I Just Had No Control, That Really Caught Us Off Guard, So Much Was Already Taken Away, We're People and There Needs To Be More Support and Practices Which Helped. Mothers' care needs were found to align with TIC principles. Findings suggest that implementation of TIC principles in NICU settings can support parental presence, participation in infant care, and mental health and support the potential of TIC as a more comprehensive approach to meeting the needs of NICU parents.

Relationship between social support and post-discharge mental health symptoms in mothers of preterm infants

BACKGROUND

Social support is associated with decreased symptoms of postpartum mood and anxiety disorders (PMAD) in mothers of healthy infants, but less is known about social support and PMADs in mothers with preterm infants. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between social support and symptoms of PMADs reported by mothers in the months following hospital discharge of their preterm infant.

METHODS

Mothers of infants less than 33 weeks gestational age were enrolled from neonatal intensive care units (NICU) at 6 sites. Mothers completed PMAD measures of depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress approximately 3 months following their infant's discharge. Multivariable regression was used to evaluate relationships between social support and PMAD measures.

RESULTS

Of 129 mothers, 1 in 5 reported clinically significant PMAD symptoms of: depression (24%), anxiety (19%), and post-traumatic stress (20%). Social support was strongly inversely associated with all 3 PMADs. Social support explained between 21% and 26% of the variance in depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Increased social support may buffer PMAD symptoms in mothers of preterm infants after discharge. Research is needed to determine effective screening and interventions aimed at promoting social support for all parents during and following their infant's hospitalisation.

The Prevalence of PTSD of Mothers and Fathers of High-Risk Infants Admitted to NICU: A Systematic Review

Admission of a preterm or sick full-term infant to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) is a stressful experience for parents. Indeed, the 'NICU experience' may constitute a traumatic event for parents, distinct from other birth-related trauma, leading to significant and ongoing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, the rates at which this outcome occurs are not well understood. This review aimed to identify the prevalence of PTSD in mothers and fathers of high-risk infants admitted to the NICU, specifically focusing on the NICU experience as the index trauma. The PRISMA-P: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols were used to conduct this review. We searched PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, Web of Science, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses databases, and reference lists of included articles (1980-2021). Two independent reviewers screened titles and abstracts and conducted the full-text screening assessment. Of the 707 records identified, seven studies met the inclusion criteria. In this systematic review, PTSD symptomatology was assessed by self-report measures rather than a clinical interview. We identified significant variations in the methodologies and quality between studies, with a wide variation of reported prevalence rates of PTSD of 4.5-30% in mothers and 0-33% in fathers. Overall, the findings indicate that up to one-third of parents experience PTSD symptomatology related to the NICU experience. These results emphasize the importance of universal routine antenatal and postnatal screening for symptoms of PTSD to identify parents at risk of distress during the NICU experience and after discharge.Trial registration: The study protocol was registered with Prospero registration number CRD42020154548 on 28 April 2020.

Parents' Experiences of Communication in Neonatal Care (PEC): a neonatal survey refined for real-time parent feedback

OBJECTIVE

Assessing parent experiences of neonatal services can help improve quality of care; however, there is no formally evaluated UK instrument available to assess this prospectively. Our objective was to refine an existing retrospective survey for 'real-time' feedback.

METHODS

Co-led by a parent representative, we recruited a convenience sample of parents of infants in a London tertiary neonatal unit. Our steering group selected questions from the existing retrospective 61-question Picker survey (2014), added and revised questions assessing communication and parent involvement. We established face validity, ensuring questions adequately captured the topic, conducted parent cognitive interviews to evaluate parental understanding of questions,and adapted the survey in three revision cycles. We evaluated survey performance.

RESULTS

The revised Parents' Experiences of Communication in Neonatal Care (PEC) survey contains 28 questions (10 new) focusing on communication and parent involvement. We cognitively interviewed six parents, and 67 parents completed 197 PEC surveys in the survey performance evaluation. Missing entries exceeded 5% for nine questions; we removed one and format-adjusted the rest as they had performed well during cognitive testing. There was strong inter-item correlation between two question pairs; however, all were retained as they individually assessed important concepts.

CONCLUSION

Revised from the original 61-question Picker survey, the 28-question PEC survey is the first UK instrument formally evaluated to assess parent experience while infants are still receiving neonatal care. Developed with parents, it focuses on communication and parent involvement, enabling continuous assessment and iterative improvement of family-centred interventions in neonatal care.

Exploring the Influence of a Mindfulness Intervention on the Experiences of Mothers with Infants in Neonatal Intensive Care Units

Objectives

Mothers with infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are at increased risk of psychological distress, which can have lasting negative impacts on both mother and infant. However, few interventions are available to promote these mothers' mental health and wellbeing. In the context of a pilot randomized controlled trial testing a mindfulness intervention for mothers with infants in the NICU, we explore the experiences of the mothers participating in the mindfulness-based intervention, with mothers in the control group as comparison, and the ways they felt it influenced their time in the NICU.

Method

Twenty-six participants (15 participants in the intervention arm and 11 participants in the control arm) recruited from two NICUs in an urban center in Eastern United States completed semi-structured interviews. Interviews explored the mothers' NICU experience as well as experience with the mindfulness and health education (control) programs. Data was analyzed using an iterative, thematic constant comparison process informed by grounded theory.

Results

Mothers reported that participation in the mindfulness intervention helped them to calm the chaos through recentering and fostering connections, find comfort through non-judgmental acceptance, gain perspective on the situation, and facilitate self-care. These were experienced only among the mothers in the intervention arm. These themes did not vary based on demographics of the mothers in the mindfulness study arm or their pre-study awareness of mindfulness.

Conclusions

Mindfulness interventions may foster new practices and perspectives for mothers with infants in the NICU, potentially leading to improved mental health wellbeing.

Frequency of maternal stress and psychic risk in newborns who have been hospitalized in a neonatal intensive care unit

Abstract Objectives: describe the frequency of maternal stress and psychic risk indicators in newborns who were exposed to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) after hospital discharge. Methods: observational, analytical, cohort study, sample of 26 participants (13 exposed and 13 not exposed to the NICU). Maternal stress was assessed by Inventário de Sintomas de Stress para Adultos de Lipp (ISSL) (Lipp’s Stress Symptoms Inventory for Adults) and psychological risk by Indicadores Clínicos de Risco para o Desenvolvimento Infantil (IRDI) (Clinical Risk Indicators for Child Development), 15 days after hospital discharge and at 4 months of corrected age. Results: the study found a frequency of stress of 23.1% in mothers of newborns who were exposed to NICUs and 38.5% of psychological risk in these newborns. The following associations were found: maternal stress and newborn exposure to the NICU (p=0.037); maternal stress and newborn exposure time to NICU (p=0.031); psychological risk and prematurity (p=0.014). There were no association between psychic risk and maternal stress; and there was no diference in the frequency of psychological risk between the groups of newborns. Conclusions: newborn hospitalization in the NICU is associated with maternal stress, but not with psychological risk. Prematurity can cause psychological risk. Maternal stress was not associated with psychological risk.

Effect of family-centred care on parental mental health and parent-infant interactions for preterm infants: a systematic review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Unexpected premature delivery and separation from preterm infants are common problems that parents of preterm infants must handle with. Parents of preterm infants may suffer from severe psychological distress. Family-centred care (FCC) can effectively ease parents' psychological distress and strengthen connections between parents and their preterm infants. The purpose of this systematic review will be to systematically review and evaluate the impacts of FCC interventions on the mental health of parents of preterm infants and the parent-infant relationship.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This protocol for this systematic review will be conducted in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocol. We will search databases including PubMed, Embase, The Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Scopus and ProQuest, CNKI, SinoMed and Wanfang Data from 1 July 2012 to 1 July 2022. An additional search of OpenGrey will be conducted to identify grey literature. Randomised controlled trials related to FCC inventions for preterm infants≤37 weeks' gestational age and their parents will be included, and the outcome measures will be parental mental health and parent-infant interaction. Two reviewers will independently conduct title and abstract screening, full-text screening, data extraction and study quality assessment. Risk of bias for the studies will be evaluated using the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias V.2.0. Any disagreements will be solved by a third reviewer to reach a consensus. If appropriate, a meta-analysis will be conducted to assess the effect of FCC on parental mental health and parent-infant relationship.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Research ethics approval will not be required for this review since it will not involve the collection of primary data and will only use published literature. The results will be disseminated in a peer-reviewed journal through publication or by presentation at relevant academic conference.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022299203.

NICU Staff's Perceptions and Attitudes Toward the Family Integrated Care (FICare) Model: A Chinese Cross-sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Family Integrated Care (FICare) is an innovative model that encourages parents to assume the role of primary caregivers during the neonatal period.

PURPOSE

To conduct a survey of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) nurses and physicians on a national scale to determine their perceptions and attitudes toward FICare.

METHODS

Data on 3 domains were collected: demographic characteristics, FICare perceptions, and attitudes. The survey included 299 NICU nurses and physicians from 31 tertiary-level NICUs across China (response rate = 96.5%).

RESULTS

The respondents showed a positive attitude toward implementing FICare and recognized its positive impact on infants. However, some respondents raised concerns regarding its feasibility and limitations of the NICU setting. The respondents' perceptions and attitudes of FICare varied based on their personal characteristics, such as marital status and day/night work shifts.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Most NICU nurses and physicians reported that FICare can benefit infants. Despite some constraints related to the NICU environmental conditions, most NICU leaders felt positive about implementing FICare in China. Therefore, establishing key strategies for performing FICare, selecting appropriate personnel, and educating the staff regarding FICare are useful approaches to promote FICare implementation. FICare requires the team's collaborative effort with the support of NICU leaders to overcome system and setting barriers. Nurses should serve as navigators to guide its implementation. More studies on healthcare setting policies, parents' perceptions, and approaches for healthcare professionals to perform FICare in China are required.

Parent-infant interaction in the NICU: Challenges in measurement

BACKGROUND

Parent-infant interaction is poorly understood among high-risk dyads in NICU settings. No parent-infant interaction measures are specifically designed for preterm infants within the NICU nor account for the education NICU parents receive to tailor their interactions based on the infant's cues.

AIM

To improve our understanding of a measure of parent-infant interaction in the NICU, we investigated relationships between parent-infant interaction scores on the Nursing Child Assessment Feeding Scale (NCAFS) and 1) socio-demographic and medical factors, 2) parent mental health and confidence, and 3) enhanced parental education (delivered as part of the Supporting and Enhancing NICU Sensory Experiences program) on tailoring interactions based on the infant's cues.

METHOD

Twenty-six preterm infants (born ≤32 weeks) had a video recorded oral feeding conducted by a parent in the NICU when the infant was 34-48 weeks postmenstrual age. A certified evaluator scored parent-infant interaction from the videos using the NCAFS.

RESULTS

Seventeen (65 %) parent-infant dyads scored below the 10th percentile on the total NCAFS score. Despite it being well-understood that parent-infant interaction is related to sociodemographic factors and parental mental health, there were no relationships between these factors and NCAFS scores in this study. Dyads who received enhanced parent education (n = 15) had lower NCAFS scores than dyads receiving usual care (n = 11) (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

It remains unclear if the standard measure of parent-infant interaction, NCAFS, captured positive and negative interactions in context of assessment of a high-risk dyad within the NICU setting. The utility of the NCAFS with preterm infants in the NICU was not supported by this study.

The Effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on Posttraumatic Stress of Mothers With Premature Neonates Admitted to a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

Mothers experience posttraumatic stress disorder with the birth of a premature neonate. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of mindfulness-based stress reduction on posttraumatic stress of mothers with premature neonates in Iran. Sixty mothers with premature neonates were selected by using convenience sampling and stratified random allocation. Mindfulness-based stress reduction was trained and mean posttraumatic stress disorder was measured. Mean posttraumatic stress scores of the 2 groups were statistically significant immediately and 1 month after the intervention (independent t test, P < .05). Posttraumatic stress of both groups reduced over time, but this reduction was more significant in the intervention group (repeated-measures analysis of variance, P < .05). Concerning the positive role of mindfulness-based stress reduction in posttraumatic stress disorder of mothers, it is recommended to use this approach in care programs of mothers with premature neonates.

Mobilizing Forward: An Interpretive Description of Supporting Successful Neonatal Intensive Care Unit-To-Home Transitions for Adolescent Parents

Pregnancy and parenting in adolescence and the transition home following the hospitalization of an infant in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are two relatively complex phenomena; and whilst each have been consistently explored within the relevant literature, little is understood about the care required when they intersect. Using interpretive description methodology to guide our exploration, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 23 expert providers caring for adolescent parents involved in NICU-to-home transitions to describe this process in their practice. Findings suggest that supporting successful NICU-to-home transitions for adolescent parents relied strongly on understanding the impact of the NICU experience, establishing therapeutic relationships and facilitating supportive partnerships between the NICU and parents as well as the NICU and supportive services post-discharge. Findings highlight the opportunity for more integrated models of care within the NICU and extending into the community to address the complex biopsychosocial care needs of this parent population.

Lower Maternal Chronic Physiological Stress and Better Child Behavior at 18 Months: Follow-Up of a Cluster Randomized Trial of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Family Integrated Care

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether Family Integrated Care (FICare) in the neonatal intensive care unit improves maternal chronic physiological stress and child behavior at 18 months of corrected age for infants born preterm.

STUDY DESIGN

Follow-up of a multicenter, prospective cluster-randomized controlled trial comparing FICare and standard care of children born at <33 weeks of gestation and parents, stratified by tertiary neonatal intensive care units, across Canada. Primary outcomes at 18 months of corrected age were maternal stress hormones (cortisol, ie, hair cumulative cortisol [HCC], dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA]) assayed from hair samples. Secondary outcomes included maternal reports of parenting stress, child behaviors (Internalizing, Externalizing, Dysregulation), and observer-rated caregiving behaviors. Outcomes were analyzed using multilevel modeling.

RESULTS

We included 126 mother-child dyads from 12 sites (6 FICare sites, n = 83; 6 standard care sites, n = 43). FICare intervention significantly lowered maternal physiological stress as indicated by HCC (B = -0.22 [-0.41, -0.04]) and cortisol/DHEA ratio (B = -0.25 [-0.48, -0.02]), but not DHEA (B = 0.01 [-0.11, 0.14]). Enrollment in FICare led to lower child Internalizing (B = -0.93 [-2.33, 0.02]) and Externalizing behavior T scores (B = -0.91 [-2.25, -0.01]) via improvements to maternal HCC (mediation). FICare buffered the negative effects of high maternal HCC on child Dysregulation T scores (B = -11.40 [-23.01, 0.21]; moderation). For mothers reporting high parenting stress at 18 months, FICare was related to lower Dysregulation T scores via maternal HCC; moderated mediation = -0.17 (-0.41, -0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

FICare has long-term beneficial effects for mother and child, attenuating maternal chronic physiological stress, and improving child behavior in toddlerhood.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01852695.

Postpartum Health Experiences of Women with Newborns in Intensive Care: The Desire to Be by the Infant Bedside as a Driver of Postpartum Health

INTRODUCTION

Women with infants in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) encounter multiple challenges following childbirth, including greater burden of chronic disease and increased risk for depression, compared with women with well infants. At the same time, they are confronted with the trauma of a hospitalized infant while also managing their postpartum recovery. Limited research exists describing the health needs of these women, despite the many numbers living this experience daily. This study aimed to better understand postpartum health needs of women with infants in the NICU in the 90 days following birth and to propose actionable system improvements to address identified needs.

METHODS

The authors conducted in-depth individual interviews with 50 postpartum women of infants admitted to the NICU at a quaternary care hospital. Eligible women were aged at least 18 years, spoke English or Spanish, and had infants in the NICU longer than 3 days. Interview topics included NICU experience, recommended and desired health care, and suggestions for improvement. Interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. The authors used qualitative description techniques including memo-writing, coding, matrices, diagramming, and team discussion to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Women reported significant intrapartum health conditions and concerns (eg, preeclampsia, emergency cesarean birth, anxiety) and described unmet social, emotional, mental, and physical health needs. Unmet practical needs while in the NICU (eg, a place to rest, affordable parking, access to food, childcare) caused considerable burden. Despite disease burden and emergent health needs, few women reported regular monitoring of their postpartum health by maternal health care providers. Women frequently minimized and delayed care for their health needs so as to remain by the infant bedside.

DISCUSSION

Women with infants in the NICU would benefit from patient-centered care that provides greater attention to their postpartum health and recovery while also supporting their drive to remain close to their hospitalized infant.

You can't flight, you need to fight-A qualitative study of mothers' experiences of feeding extremely preterm infants

AIM

To describe mother's experiences of feeding their extremely preterm infant.

BACKGROUND

When an infant is born extremely preterm, there is a long rocky road for the mother if she wants to breastfeed. Some manage to reach their goals, others do not. Studies of feeding extremely preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are scarce.

DESIGN

A qualitative method with an inductive approach.

METHODS

Nine mothers giving birth to extremely preterm infants were interviewed by telephone after discharge from the NICU. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed with qualitative content analysis. The COREQ checklist was followed.

RESULTS

The overall theme was "you can't flight, you need to fight." The theme reflects the mothers' will to do the best for their infants even if the struggle with milk expression and breastfeeding practice evoked feelings of helplessness, exposure, worry and disappointment. The categories forming the theme were as follows: The wish to provide own breastmilk; For the infant's best; Loss of control; and Help to reach the goals.

CONCLUSION

The mothers had a strong will to provide breastmilk to their infants but requested more support in order to be successful.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

There is a need for evidence-based support programmes for mothers of extremely preterm infants to encourage them to persevere with milk expression and breastfeeding over time.

Family Integrated Care for Preterm Infants

Parent-infant separation is a major source of stress for parents of hospitalized preterm infants and has negative consequences for infant health and development. Family Integrated Care (FICare) uses a strengths-based approach, based on family-centered care principles to promote parental empowerment, learning, shared decision making, and positive parent-infant caregiving experiences. Outcomes of FICare include increased self-efficacy upon discharge and improved parent-infant relationships and infant developmental outcomes. In this article, the authors describe the FICare model and emerging evidence regarding outcomes of FICare for infants and families and discuss challenges and opportunities in implementing and maintaining high-quality FICare.

NICU Maternal-Infant Bonding: Virtual Visitation as a Bonding Enhancement Tool

The admission of an infant to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) presents specialized barriers to the maternal-infant bonding (MIB) process. Virtual visitation (VV) provides a mother with the opportunity to have continual access to her hospitalized infant via a one-way live Web camera. While increasingly used in the NICU, VV remains a novel concept. The objective of this study was to introduce a conceptual model that incorporates the use of VV into the NICU MIB process. Adapted from the Model of Mother-Infant Bonding After Antenatal HIV Diagnosis, a newly developed model of MIB using VV as a bonding enhancement tool is offered. A Model of NICU Maternal-Infant Bonding Incorporating Virtual Visitation presents the NICU bonding process in a chronological manner, with 5 primary propositions and an explanation of their related themes. Virtual visitation is introduced into the bonding process and is shown to act as a moderated variable. A Model of NICU Maternal-Infant Bonding Incorporating Virtual Visitation introduces VV as a tool to enhance the MIB process that occurs in the NICU. The model provides the basis for the development of a research program to examine the multiple potential effects of VV in the NICU.

Interventions to improve quantitative measures of parent satisfaction in neonatal care: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Interventions improving parent satisfaction can reduce parent stress, may improve parent-infant bonding and infant outcomes. Our objective was to systematically review neonatal interventions relating to parents of infants of all gestations where an outcome was parent satisfaction.

METHODS

We searched the databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, HMIC, Maternity and Infant Care between 1 January 1946 and 1 October 2017. Inclusion criteria were randomised controlled trials (RCT), cohort studies and other non-randomised studies if participants were parents of infants receiving neonatal care, interventions were implemented in neonatal units (of any care level) and ≥1 quantitative outcome of parent satisfaction was measured. Included studies were limited to the English language only. We extracted study characteristics, interventions, outcomes and parent involvement in intervention design. Included studies were not sufficiently homogenous to enable quantitative synthesis. We assessed quality with the Cochrane Collaboration risk of bias tool (randomised) and the ROBINS-I tool (Risk Of Bias In Non-randomised Studies - of Interventions) (non-randomised studies).

RESULTS

We identified 32 studies with satisfaction measures from over 2800 parents and grouped interventions into 5 themes. Most studies were non-randomised involving preterm infants. Parent satisfaction was measured by 334 different questions in 29 questionnaires (only 6/29 fully validated). 18/32 studies reported higher parent satisfaction in the intervention group. The intervention theme with most studies reporting higher satisfaction was parent involvement (10/14). Five (5/32) studies reported involving parents in intervention design. All studies had high risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Many interventions, commonly relating to parent involvement, are reported to improve parent satisfaction. Inconsistency in satisfaction measurements and high risk of bias makes this low-quality evidence. Standardised, validated parent satisfaction measures are needed, as well as higher quality trials of parent experience involving parents in intervention design.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42017072388.

"It was all taken away": Lactation, embodiment, and resistance among mothers caring for their very-low-birth-weight infants in the neonatal intensive care unit

The prevalence of infants born before 37 weeks of gestation continues to rise in the United States. Advances in neonatology have led to improved survival rates among preterm infants, including those born at a very-low-birth-weight (VLBW). Exclusive human milk feeding is a therapeutic intervention for VLBW preterm infants, and mothers are encouraged to provide their own milk. Yet, it is well-established that mothers and infants may face extraordinarily complicated lactation and infant feeding challenges in NICU settings, many of which emanate from birth trauma. The purpose of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which the hyper-medicalized management of preterm birth and infant feeding in NICU environments affect mothers' postpartum health and well-being. Seventeen mothers of VLBW preterm infants were interviewed August 2016-June 2017 within three years of their infant's NICU discharge about their feeding decisions and experiences. Narrative analysis yielded five themes: (1) the physical and emotional trauma of giving birth prematurely impacted mothers' lactation experiences; (2) separation from their infants intensified mothers' suffering and disrupted lactation; (3) mothers experienced being marginalized in their infant's NICU care; (4) mothers practiced embodied forms of resistance to cope with both trauma and marginalization; and (5) skilled support was central to mothers' positive lactation experiences in the NICU. We draw upon feminist theory in the anthropology of reproduction to examine the fundamental hierarchies of power in U.S. neonatal critical care systems that fracture mothers' interembodied relationships to their newborns, exacerbate lactation failure, and engender traumatic postpartum neglect. Moreover, we theorize mothers' expressions of suffering in the context of preterm birth and lactation insufficiency as idioms of distress engendered by the violence of neglectful care. Narrative inquiry is instrumental to designing structural transformations in the systems of care available to mothers of preterm infants who are admitted to a NICU.

Memories of Infant Pain in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Influence Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Mothers of Infants Born Preterm

OBJECTIVES

The birth of a preterm infant and witnessing ones' infant in pain is remembered by parents as being one of the most stressful aspects of the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Elevated posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are highly prevalent among mothers of preterm infants, however, little is known about mothers' memories of invasive procedures in the NICU and how these memories may contribute to the development of PTSS. We examined the relationships between number of invasive procedures, mothers' memories of these procedures, and their PTSS at discharge from the NICU.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Participants included 36 mothers of infants born below 37 weeks gestational age recruited from a tertiary-level NICU. Medical chart review was performed between birth and discharge from the NICU. At discharge, a research nurse conducted a structured memory interview with the mothers to assess their memories of their infants' invasive procedures. Mothers also completed a self-report measure of PTSS (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for the DSM-5).

RESULTS

Mothers of infants exposed to greater numbers of invasive procedures had more elevated PTSS at discharge (R=0.37). Moreover, mothers who recalled having greater anxiety about their infant's invasive procedures had greater symptoms of reexperiencing (R=0.34) and avoidance (R=0.28) at discharge from the NICU.

DISCUSSION

Greater neonatal exposure to invasive procedures and mothers' recall of these procedures were related to mothers' posttraumatic stress symptomatology at discharge. Invasive procedures in the NICU represent an important target area for neonatal intervention to reduce maternal distress and improve outcomes.

The forgotten mothers of extremely preterm babies: A qualitative study

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To explore the experiences of mothers of extremely premature babies during their Neonatal Intensive Care Unit stay and transition home.

BACKGROUND

Mothers of extremely preterm infants (28 weeks' gestation or less) experience a continuum of regular and repeated stressful and traumatic events, during the perinatal period, during the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit stay, and during transition home.

METHOD

An interpretive description method guided this study. Ten mothers of extremely premature infants who had been at home for less than six months were recruited via a Facebook invitation to participate in semi-structured telephone interviews exploring their experiences in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and the transition home. The data were examined using a six-phase thematic analysis approach. The COREQ checklist has been used.

RESULTS

Two main themes emerged: (a) things got a bit dire; and (b) feeling a failure as a mother. Participants had a heightened risk of developing a mental disorder from exposure to multiple risk factors prior to and during birth, as well as during the postnatal period in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and their infant's transition to home. Mothers highlighted the minimal support for their mental health from healthcare professionals, despite their regular and repeated experience of traumatic events.

CONCLUSION

The mothers were at high risk of developing post-traumatic stress symptoms and/or other mental health issues. Of note, study participants relived the trauma of witnessing their infant in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, demonstrated hypervigilance behaviour and identified lack of relevant support needed when their infant was at home.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

This study highlights the need for nurses to include a focus on the mothers' psychosocial needs. Supporting maternal mental health both improves maternal well-being and enables mothers to be emotionally available and responsive to their extremely preterm infant.

Adolescent Substance Use and Effects on the Birth Experience

Depression, violence, and infant complications are recognized risk factors for negative birth experiences. Substance use, which often co-occurs with these risk factors, is unexplored for its role upon the birth experience. The frequency of these risk factors among childbearing adolescents suggests a need for research in this area. This study revealed direct and indirect effects by all risk factors on the adolescent's birth experience. Implications for nursing practice suggest collaboration between maternal child health and mental health nurses in prenatal, hospital, and follow-up healthcare settings to provide essential assessment of risk factors and resources and referrals across the perinatal period.