Lateral hip pain: does imaging predict response to localized injection?

Is shockwave therapy effective in the management of greater trochanteric pain syndrome? A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Evidence is lacking for the efficacy of shockwave therapy (SWT) in the treatment of greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS).

AIM

To investigate the efficacy of SWT on pain and function in the management of GTPS.

METHODS

A systematic search of electronic databases and grey literature was conducted up to May 2023. Studies utilising SWT on adults for GTPS, providing measures of pain and/or function at baseline and at follow-up were considered for inclusion. Meta-analysis was undertaken using converted pain and functional outcomes. Studies were assessed for quality and risk of bias, and assigned a level of evidence as per the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations criteria.

RESULTS

Twelve articles (n = 1121 subjects) were included, including five randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and seven non-RCTs. No statistical differences were observed for pain over time f(1,5) = 1.349 (p = 0.298) or between SWT and control f(1,5) = 1.782 (p = 0.238). No significant differences in functional outcomes in short- (H = 2.591, p = 0.181) and medium-term follow-up (H = 0.189, p = 0.664) were identified between SWT and control. Moderate magnitude treatment effects for pain (Hedges-G [HG] 0.71) favouring SWT groups over control was identified, decreasing to low for function (HG 0.20). Further pain and functional treatment effects were identified at higher magnitudes across follow-up time-points in SWT groups compared to control.

CONCLUSION

Moderate-quality evidence demonstrated no statistically significant improvements in pain and function post-SWT compared to control. Low-quality evidence established clinical improvements throughout all included studies favouring SWT over control. Consequently, owing to relatively low incidence of side effects, SWT should be considered a viable option for the management of GTPS. Issues with both clinical and statistical heterogeneity of studies and during meta-analysis require consideration, and more robust RCTs are recommended if the efficacy of SWT for the management of GTPS is to be comprehensively determined.

What factors influence pain scores following Corticosteroid injection in patients with Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Cortico-Steroid Injections (CSI) are commonly used to treat patients with Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome (GTPS) but it is unclear which patients will experience improvements in pain.

OBJECTIVES

To identify factors that influence improvements in pain for patients with GTPS treated with CSI.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

A search was undertaken of AMED, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Medline and PEDro databases. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they investigated factors that influenced changes in pain experienced by patients with GTPS who received a CSI. Studies needed to include relevant summary statistics and tests of clinical significance. Risk Of Bias in Non-randomised Trials Of Interventions (ROBINS-I) and Risk Of Bias 2 (ROB2) tools were used to assess bias.

RESULTS

The search identified 466 studies, 8 were included in the final review with a total of 643 participants. There was no association between demographic variables such as age, sex, symptom duration or obesity and pain outcomes post-CSI. Having a co-existing musculoskeletal (MSK) condition such as knee osteoarthritis or sacroiliac/lumbar spine pain was associated with less pain reduction post-CSI. Injections into the Trochanteric Bursa were associated with longer lasting pain reduction than Gluteus Medius Bursa or extra-bursal injections. Image guidance of CSI maintained lower pain scores at six months but did not increase the duration of the therapeutic effect past six months. The presence of specific ultrasound scan features was not associated with differences in pain scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with co-existing MSK conditions may not respond to CSI as well as those without. Injections into the Greater Trochanteric Bursa may have longer lasting benefit. Further research is needed on the use of USS imaging findings and image guidance.

Treatment of Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome With Ultrasound-Guided Bipolar Pulsed Radiofrequency of the Trochanteric Branches of the Femoral Nerve: A Case Series of Nine Patients

BACKGROUND

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) is a prevalent cause of lateral hip pain that often leads to significant functional limitations. Conservative treatment options include physical therapy, pharmacological treatment, and more invasive techniques such as corticosteroid injections. However, despite the high success rates reported with corticosteroid injections, a significant number of patients have their symptoms persist or recur.

OBJECTIVES

In this case series, we present the outcomes of nine patients with GTPS who underwent ultrasound-guided bipolar pulsed radiofrequency targeting the trochanteric branches of the femoral nerve. We aim to discuss the effectiveness and safety of this approach.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eligible patients referred to our centre underwent ultrasound-guided bipolar pulsed radiofrequency aimed at the trochanteric branches of the femoral nerve. The procedure consisted of one cycle at 42°C for six minutes, followed by the injection of ropivacaine (0.2%, 3 mL) and dexamethasone (12 mg). The Brief Pain Inventory - Short Form (BPI-sf) and Lequesne Algofunctional Index (LAI) were used before the procedure and at the third and sixth months post-procedure. We monitored immediate and late complications, as well as adverse effects.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Our results indicate a favourable outcome for most patients, with an average pain reduction of 76.51% according to their report of the BPI-sf. Additionally, eight out of nine patients experienced at least 50% relief. These findings align with a previous case series, which reported a similar average pain reduction. Before the procedure, most patients were classified as "extremely severe" in the LAI, with an average score of 18.17. Although there was only a slight reduction of 16.84% at the six-month follow-up, this suggests a potential improvement in their functional status. We did not observe any immediate complications or adverse effects after the procedure, nor were any reported at the subsequent follow-ups, which is consistent with existing literature.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that ultrasound-guided bipolar pulsed radiofrequency treatment is a promising minimally invasive technique for GPTS, especially for patients who do not respond to conservative treatments. Although our case series provides some evidence of effectiveness and safety, further controlled studies on a larger scale are necessary, particularly to compare this intervention with the use of corticosteroid injections alone.

The Hip-Spine Connection: How to Differentiate Hip Conditions From Spine Pathology

Practitioners treating spine pathology commonly encounter patients with hip pain. These patients frequently manifest groin, buttock, trochanteric, or knee pain. Complex biomechanical interaction between the axial and the appendicular skeleton may result in compensatory adaptation. Cross-innervation of the hip and surrounding tissues may make diagnosis of the primary source difficult, leading to delayed diagnosis. This review elucidates the interaction between the hip and the spine and can assist clinicians in recognizing the hip as a potential source of pain. Diagnostic guidelines enabling a streamlined workup of patients presenting with confusing symptoms related to the hip that masquerade as a spine disorder are presented. [Orthopedics. 2021;44(6):e699-e706.].

Non-surgical treatment as the first step to manage peritrochanteric space disorders

PURPOSE

Greater trochanter pain syndrome (GTPS) or lateral hip pain terms include external snapping hip, trochanteric bursitis and gluteus medius or minimus pathology. The aim of this review is to update the most recent knowledge about non-surgical management of peritrochanteric disorders.

METHODS

A literature review was performed including articles most relevant in the last years that were focused in non-surgical treatment of peritrochanteric disorders.

RESULTS

Conservative treatment still has a place and includes activity modification, NSAIDs, analgesics, physiotherapy, home training, local corticosteroid injection (CSI) and shock wave therapy (SWT). These non-surgical alternatives have demonstrated good clinical results with low rate of complications.

CONCLUSION

Most patients tend to resolve GTPS or lateral hip pain with non-surgical management in the mid-term but when everything failed, surgical options should be evaluated. The next frontier that will be a game changer is to determine an individualized treatment plan based on the exact pathology.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V.

Relationship of the Pelvic-Trochanteric Index with greater trochanteric pain syndrome

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to correlate a higher Pelvic-Trochanteric Index (PTI) with an increased varus of the femoral neck with greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS). The secondary objective was to check whether the pelvic width changes with age.

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted to compare female patients diagnosed with GTPS (case group) with asymptomatic female participants (control group) from March 2011 to June 2017. On an anteroposterior pelvic radiograph, lines were drawn by two radiologists, and the PTI (ratio of the distance between the greater trochanters and distance between the iliac crests) was defined and the femoral neck-shaft angle was measured.

RESULTS

Data collected based on radiographs of 182 female patients (cases) and 150 female participants (controls) showed that the mean PTI was 1.09 (SD=0.01) in the case group and 1.07 (SD=0.01) in the control group (p<0.05), regardless of age. The distance between iliac crests increased with age (p<0.05) in symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. It was also found that the mean femoral neck-shaft angle was 130.6° (SD=0.59) and progression of the varus angulation occurred with age in both groups, with a significance level of 5%.

CONCLUSIONS

The PTI was higher in patients with GTPS. The femoral neck-shaft angle does not differ between individuals with and without GTPS; however, it does decrease with age. The pelvic width tends to increase with aging in symptomatic or asymptomatic individuals; therefore, the increase in the pelvic width and decrease in the femoral neck-shaft angle can be interpreted as normal in aging women, which could alter the biomechanics of the hips and pelvis.

Does low back pain or leg pain in gluteus medius syndrome contribute to lumbar degenerative disease and hip osteoarthritis and vice versa? A literature review

[Purpose] Gluteus medius syndrome is one of the major causes of back pain or leg pain and is similar to greater trochanteric pain syndrome, which also presents with back pain or leg pain. Greater trochanteric pain syndrome is associated with lumbar degenerative disease and hip osteoarthritis. The objective of this review was to demonstrate gluteus medius syndrome as a disease entity by reviewing relevant articles to elucidate the condition. [Methods] Gluteus medius syndrome was defined as myofascial pain syndrome arising from the gluteus medius. We performed a search of the literature using the following keywords: “back pain”, “leg pain”, “greater trochanteric pain syndrome”, “degenerative lumbar disease”, “hip osteoarthritis”, and “gluteus medius”. We reviewed articles related to gluteus medius syndrome and described the findings in terms of diagnosis and treatment based on the underlying pathology. [Results] A total of 135 articles were included in this review. Gluteus medius syndrome is similar as a disease entity to greater trochanteric pain syndrome, which presents with symptoms of low back pain and leg pain. Gluteus medius syndrome is also related to lumbar degenerative disease, hip osteoarthritis, knee osteoarthritis, and failed back surgery syndrome. [Conclusion] Accurate diagnosis of gluteus medius syndrome and appropriate treatment could possibly improve lumbar degenerative disease and osteoarthritis of the hip and knee, as well as hip-spine syndrome and failed back surgery syndrome.

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome and gluteus medius and minimus tendinosis: nonsurgical treatment

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) affects 10–25% of people in developed countries. The underlying etiology for GTPS is most commonly the tendinosis or a tendon tear of the gluteus medius, minimus or both at the greater trochanter; the inflammation of the tendon is not a major feature. We critically evaluated conservative treatment, for which we reviewed 76 publications, grading them according to four levels of evidence. We identified a wide variety of conservative treatment options: home therapy (insoles, walking sticks/crutches, orthotic devices, stretching exercises and preventive measures); physiotherapy (massage and stretching exercises); infiltrations (corticosteroids and local anesthetics); image-guided infiltrations (fluoroscopy and ultrasound); shockwave therapy; platelet-rich plasma injection; and drug therapy. Severe complications associated with infiltrations are extremely rare, as are those associated with shockwave therapy. The most effective treatments were infiltrations with corticosteroids and shockwave therapy. We propose a graded treatment schedule for patients with GTPS.

Do ultrasound guided trochanteric bursa injections of corticosteroid for greater trochanteric pain syndrome provide sustained benefit and are imaging features associated with treatment response?

AIM

To assess intra-bursal corticosteroid injections (ICSI) efficacy and duration of action in the management of greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS). The secondary aim was to identify patient and ultrasound (US) features predictive of treatment response.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Consecutive prospectively recruited patients undergoing US-guided ICSI therapy for GTPS received baseline pre-injection questionnaires assessing pain at rest and activity, demographics and comorbidities. Baseline US and radiography findings were reported prospectively. Follow-up was performed at 6 weeks and 6 and 12 months, and change in pain scores assessed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Logistic regression examined associations between demographics, US findings, and a clinically significant reduction in pain score (≥50%).

RESULTS

Over 6 months, 127 patients were recruited with a median age of 63.5 years and 90% were female. The greatest pain reduction was between baseline and 6 weeks at activity (median 8 versus 5, p<0.001). The majority of patients noted a reduction in pain score, but the percentage of patients receiving a ≥50% reduction at 6 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months for pain at rest was 41%, 37%, and 36%, respectively. Regression models suggested only gluteus medius bursitis was weakly associated with pain reduction.

CONCLUSION

ICSIs confer a benefit in pain reduction to a large proportion of patients in the short term, but this may not be reduced by a clinically significant amount. This small effect size and lack of predictive imaging features suggests initial management including subsequent steroid injection could be provided without imaging guidance in the majority of cases.

Sonoanatomy and Pathology of the Posterior Band of the Gluteus Medius Tendon

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome is a common clinical entity that most often results from disorders of the gluteus medius tendon. There are two distinct bands of the gluteus medius tendon, and abnormalities may affect the anterior or posterior band in isolation or simultaneously. Although abnormalities of the anterior band are more common, awareness and sonographic detection of posterior band abnormalities is essential to guide treatment in the setting of greater trochanteric pain syndrome.

Gluteal Tendinopathy: Integrating Pathomechanics and Clinical Features in Its Management

Synopsis Gluteal tendinopathy is now believed to be the primary local source of lateral hip pain, or greater trochanteric pain syndrome, previously referred to as trochanteric bursitis. This condition is prevalent, particularly among postmenopausal women, and has a considerable negative influence on quality of life. Improved prognosis and outcomes in the future for those with gluteal tendinopathy will be underpinned by advances in diagnostic testing, a clearer understanding of risk factors and comorbidities, and evidence-based management programs. High-quality studies that meet these requirements are still lacking. This clinical commentary provides direction to assist the clinician with assessment and management of the patient with gluteal tendinopathy, based on currently limited available evidence on this condition and the wider tendon literature and on the combined clinical experience of the authors. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2015;45(11):910-922. Epub 17 Sep 2015. doi:10.2519/jospt.2015.5829.

Clinical presentation and imaging results of patients with symptomatic gluteus medius tears

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) is a common complaint. Recently, it has become well recognized that tendinopathy and tears of the gluteus medius (GM) are a cause of recalcitrant GTPS. Nevertheless, the clinical syndrome associated with GM tears is not fully characterized. We characterize the clinical history, findings on physical examination, imaging and intraoperative findings associated with symptomatic GM tears. Forty-five patients (47 hips) who underwent GM repair for the diagnosis of tear were evaluated. Pain was estimated on the visual analog scale (VAS) and hip-specific scores were administered to assess functional status. The imaging modalities were reviewed and intra operative findings were recorded. The average patient age was 54 years (17–76), 93% were females. Symptom onset was commonly insidious (75%) and the average time to diagnosis was 28 months (2–240). The most common pain location was the lateral hip (75%). The average pre-surgery VAS and modified Harris Hip Score were 6.65 (0–10) and 55.5 (12–90), respectively. All patients had pathological findings on magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) ranging from tendinosis to complete tears of the GM tendon. There was a discrepancy between MRA interpretation by a radiologist and findings during surgery. Hip abductor tears are an under-recognized cause of hip pain and hip symptomatology. In this study, we further characterize the clinical presentation of this entity. The data we present here may facilitate early diagnosis, early orthopedic care and avoid unnecessary prolonged patient sufferings.

Clinical utility of bone scintigraphy in patients with limb pain of suspected musculoskeletal origin

OBJECTIVE

To determine the clinical utility of bone scintigraphy in patients with limb pain of suspected musculoskeletal origin.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All patients aged ≥18 years who were referred for diagnosis and management of limb pain were diagnosed on the basis of history, physical examination, and investigations excluding bone scintigraphy. After the presumptive diagnosis was made (the pre-test diagnosis), all subjects underwent bone scintigraphy, or if they had a previous bone scintigram for their pain condition, the results of that scintigram were reviewed. Then, the pre-test diagnosis was reviewed in light of the bone scintigraphy findings and repeat clinical assessment as needed. The post-test diagnosis was considered either as unchanged diagnosis or changed diagnosis for the region or regions of interest.

RESULTS

There were 118 females (54.8%) and 97 males (45.2%). The mean age of the entire group was 36±8.1 years (range: 18-87 years). The mean duration of the symptoms was 17.4±11.2 months (range: 1-264 months). Of the 215 subjects, 212 had a bone scintigram. Of these 212 subjects, none had a changed diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

In the evaluation of limb pain of suspected musculoskeletal origin, scintigraphy is unlikely to alter the pre-test diagnosis or affect treatment decisions after history, physical examination, and non-scintigraphic investigations. The clinical utility of scinitigraphy in this setting is low.

Evolution of the human hip. Part 2: muscling the double extension

Part 1 of this article outlined the extensive osseous adaptations around the hip that occurred in the development of a habitual bipedal gait in modern humans. The shortest summary of these osseous changes is 'double extension', i.e. extension of both the hip joint and the lumbar spine. Not surprisingly, these osseous changes went hand in hand with major muscular changes. The primary changes that accompanied the double extension were changes in relative muscle volume for the quadriceps, gluteus maximus and hamstrings, changes in moment arms for the iliopsoas, gluteus maximus and hamstrings, a change in function for the gluteus medius and minimus, while the functional anatomy of the adductors and hip rotators changed only slightly. The effect of these osseous and muscular changes was improved energy efficiency of human bipedal walking and (long distance) running. However, this occurred at the expense of maximum power, characteristic for activities such as tree climbing (in the apes), but equally so for sprinting. Recognizing these changes and their consequences may help us better understand and treat soft-tissue disorders around the hip.

Intra-articular hip injections for lateral hip pain

Occult intra-articular hip pathology is commonly found in patients with greater trochanteric pain syndrome, and may be a possible pain generator in patients with recalcitrant lateral hip pain. We investigated the effect of intra-articular hip injections in patients with recalcitrant lateral hip pain. Between September 2012 and May 2013, patients over the age of 18 with a history lateral hip pain who had received prior treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications, physical therapy and peritrochanteric corticostroid injections were enrolled. Treatment consisted of an ultrasound guided intra-articular corticosteroid injection followed by a course of directed physical therapy and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication. Patients performed GaitRite analysis at baseline and 12 weeks following the injection. In addition, the Modified Harris Hip Score (mHHS), Non-Arthritic Hip Score (NAHS), Hip Outcome Scores (HOS), Short Form 36 (SF-36) and a visual analogue pain score (VAS) were collected at baseline, 1, 6 and 12 weeks.A total of 16 patients were studied. Patients experienced significant improvements from their baseline mHHS at 1 and 12 weeks (P = 0.03, P = 0.04). The minimal clinically important difference (MCID) was exceeded at multiple timepoints on various clinical outcome surveys. Velocity and stride length were not significantly improved at 12 weeks. Intra-articular hip injections may decrease pain and improve function in patients with recalcitrant lateral hip pain, and occult intra-articular hip pathology should be considered in the etiology of lateral hip pain. Though low enrollment numbers left this study underpowered, MCID comparisons demonstrated potential benefit from this treatment.

Surgical Technique for the Repair of Tears to the Gluteus Medius and Minimus Tendons of the Hip

Introduction

We describe the surgical treatment of tears to the abductor tendons of the hip, which are typically progressive and can lead to recalcitrant pain and progressive weakness, leading to considerable difficulties with walking.

Step 1 Perform the Exposure and Identify the Tear

Place the patient in the lateral decubitus position, expose the lateral peritrochanteric space, and then identify the extent of the tear.

Step 2 Mobilize the Tendons

Mobilize the typically scarred-in tendons from the surrounding tissue to allow the tendon to be brought back down to the trochanter.

Step 3 Prepare the Tendon and Greater Trochanter

Debride the tendon, and lightly burr the greater trochanter to maximize the healing of the tendon to the bone.

Step 4 Locate the Insertional Site of the Tendons and Place the Suture Anchors or Drill Holes Into This Site

Identify the area of the footprint for each of the tendons; all suture anchors should be placed in the footprint, and the transosseous drill holes should straddle the near and far edges of the footprint.

Step 5 Reattach the Tendons

After all of the sutures are placed, tie them down, starting with the pull sutures first, to bring the tendon back to bone; then secure the tendon down with the simple sutures.

Step 6 Reinforce Larger Tears

Reinforce larger tears to protect them and aid in their healing.

Step 7 Postoperative Protocol

The postoperative protocol period consists of partial weight-bearing for specific periods of time, followed by vigorous physical therapy for strengthening and gait retraining.

Results

Surgical repair can improve function and reliably decreases pain in patients with a hip abductor tear.IndicationsContraindicationsPitfalls & Challenges.

Acute calcific tendinitis of the gluteus medius: an uncommon source for back, buttock, and thigh pain

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to describe the imaging features and clinical manifestations in acute calcific tendinitis (CaT) of the gluteus medius muscle (GMe).

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted, aimed at six patients with acute calcific tendinitis of the gluteus medius muscle (CaT-GMe), who were seen between January 2011 and December 2012. Clinical presentations, radiologic data (radiography, CT, and MRI), and laboratory reports were all subject to review.

RESULTS

All patients presented with pain and decreased range of motion (ROM) at the hip. Two of the six patients experienced pain in the anterolateral thigh and groin, with antalgic gait (anterior group). The other four complained of low back, buttock, and posterolateral thigh pain, accompanied by difficulty in standing and antalgic gait (posterior group). Edema within the GMe or effusion surrounding the muscle was regularly identified on MRIs. Calcific deposits were conspicuous in the gluteus medius tendon attachments to the lateral (anterior group) and superoposterior (posterior group) facets of the greater trochanter on radiography, CT, or MRI. Complete resolution of symptoms was uniformly achieved in 5-10 days with conservative management.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute CaT-GMe should be considered in any patient suffering lateral hip pain (with either groin or low back pain) and ROM limitation. Images of the hip characteristically show edema of the gluteus medius and calcifications lateral or superior to the greater trochanter.

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome: does imaging-identified pathology influence the outcome of interventions?

AIM

To assess the outcomes for patients seen in a rheumatology service presenting with features of the greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) and the impact of imaging results on the outcomes of treatment.

METHODS

Retrospective audit, using a phone interview was performed to establish links between results of imaging undertaken in the diagnostic work-up of patients with lateral hip pain and clinical outcomes for these patients. Patient perceptions of the effectiveness of interventions were also assessed.

RESULTS

Forty-five patients were included (82% female, mean age 69.6 years). Sixty-nine percent underwent radiological work-up, including plain X-rays (55%), computed tomography scans (64%), magnetic resonance imaging (48%) and ultrasound (90%). Coexistent trochanteric bursitis (TB) and gluteal tendinopathy were the most commonly elucidated pathologies accounting for the symptomatic presentation of 40% of patients. Forty-one patients underwent some form of intervention, most commonly injection of local anesthetic and corticosteroid (LACS) into the region of the TB (87%), two-thirds of which were undertaken under radiological guidance. Pain reduction was maximal following the third injection, with a significantly better response to unguided interventions and levels of symptomatic relief following the first injection being a good indicator of the probability of complete remission. Radiological demonstration of isolated TB correlated with a greater reduction in lateral hip symptoms following LACS TB injections both in the immediate post-injection phase and in the long-term.

CONCLUSION

The results of this audit suggest that the management of GTPS has reasonable patient outcomes; however, a prospective study with greater patient numbers is needed to confirm these results.

A systematic review of imaging modalities in the diagnosis of greater trochanteric pain syndrome

OBJECTIVES

To identify the most effective imaging modality in the investigation of greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS).

METHODS

A narrative review of the available literature was conducted. A total of 326 studies were identified by a literature search, ten of which were included for review. Seven studies investigated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), one ultrasound scan (USS), one plain radiography and one bone scintigraphy.

RESULTS

On analysis, MRI was found consistently to have the highest correlation with clinical and intraoperative findings. USS and plain radiography provided encouraging results. However, conclusions drawn from this were limited by the paucity of data.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provided encouraging results, although conclusions drawn from them were limited by the paucity of data. We believe that MRI should be the current investigation of choice for GTPS. However, further study is required in the form of multicentre, randomized controlled trials to confirm the validity of the conclusions presented here.

The diagnostic accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography in gluteal tendon tears--a systematic review

Gluteal tendon tears are one of the many pathologies causing pain around the greater trochanter that are often labelled as trochanteric bursitis. We systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature to establish the accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography in the diagnosis of gluteal tendon tears in patients with persistent lateral hip pain or Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome (GTPS). 7 studies met the inclusion criteria, comparing either imaging modality with a reference standard of surgical findings. Included studies were assessed for methodological quality using the QUADAS checklist. MRI had sensitivity of 33-100%, specificity of 92-100%, positive predictive value of 71-100% and negative predictive value of 50%. False-positives were common. High signal located superior to the trochanter had a stronger association with tears. Ultrasonography had a sensitivity of 79-100% and positive predictive value of 95-100%. The amount and quality of literature on the subject is limited and further well-designed studies are required to establish the optimum diagnostic strategy in this condition. Ultrasonography may prove to be the investigation of choice, despite requiring a skilled practitioner. The orthopaedic surgeon should liaise with an experienced musculoskeletal radiologist to best investigate and diagnose gluteal tendon tears in the clinical picture of GTPS.

Surgical repair of the gluteal tendons: a report of 72 cases

Lateral hip pain is a common problem in middle-aged women. This pain is usually attributed to trochanteric bursitis and treated as such. This study reports the results of investigation, the findings at surgery, the operative technique, the histopathologic findings, and the results of gluteal tendon repair in 72 patients with long-standing trochanteric pain and reports a classification of the operative findings. Six patients (7%) in the original study cohort of 89 patients were lost to follow-up, but of the remaining patients, 65 of 72, or 90%, were pain-free or had minimal pain (P < .00001). Surgical reconstruction of detached gluteal tendons causing chronic lateral hip pain addresses the problem directly and reliably relieves the symptoms of so-called "trochanteric bursitis."

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome

Originally defined as "tenderness to palpation over the greater trochanter with the patient in the side-lying position," greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) as a clinical entity, has expanded to include a number of disorders of the lateral, peritrochanteric space of the hip, including trochanteric bursitis, tears of the gluteus medius and minimus and external coxa saltans (snapping hip). Typically presenting with pain and reproducible tenderness in the region of the greater trochanter, buttock, or lateral thigh, GTPS is relatively common, reported to affect between 10% and 25% of the general population. Secondary to the relative paucity of information available on the diagnosis and management of components of GTPS, the presence of these pathologic entities may be underrecognized, leading to extensive workups and delays in appropriate treatment. This article aims to review the present understanding of the lesions that comprise GTPS, discussing the relevant anatomy, diagnostic workup and recommended treatment for trochanteric bursitis, gluteus medius and minimus tears, and external coxa saltans.

Low-energy extracorporeal shock wave therapy as a treatment for greater trochanteric pain syndrome

BACKGROUND

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome is often a manifestation of underlying gluteal tendinopathy. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy is effective in numerous types of tendinopathies.

HYPOTHESIS

Shock wave therapy is an effective treatment for chronic greater trochanteric pain syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN

Case control study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

Thirty-three patients with chronic greater trochanteric pain syndrome received low-energy shock wave therapy (2000 shocks; 4 bars of pressure, equal to 0.18 mJ/mm(2); total energy flux density, 360 mJ/mm(2)). Thirty-three patients with chronic greater trochanteric pain syndrome were not treated with shock wave therapy but received additional forms of nonoperative therapy (control). All shock wave therapy procedures were performed without anesthesia. Evaluation was by change in visual analog score, Harris hip score, and Roles and Maudsley score.

RESULTS

Mean pretreatment visual analog scores for the control and shock wave therapy groups were 8.5 and 8.5, respectively. One, 3, and 12 months after treatment, the mean visual analog score for the control and shock wave therapy groups were 7.6 and 5.1 (P < .001), 7 and 3.7 (P < .001), and 6.3 and 2.7 (P < .001), respectively. One, 3, and 12 months after treatment, mean Harris hip scores for the control and shock wave therapy groups were 54.4 and 69.8 (P < .001), 56.9 and 74.8 (P < .001), and 57.6 and 79.9 (P < .001), respectively. At final follow-up, the number of excellent, good, fair, and poor results for the shock wave therapy and control groups were 10 and 0 (P < .001), 16 and 12 (P < .001), 4 and 13 (P < .001), and 3 and 8 (P < .001), respectively. Chi-square analysis showed the percentage of patients with excellent (1) or good (2) Roles and Maudsley scores (ie, successful results) 12 months after treatment was statistically greater in the shock wave therapy than in the control group (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Shock wave therapy is an effective treatment for greater trochanteric pain syndrome.

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome: a review of anatomy, diagnosis and treatment

Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) is a term used to describe chronic pain overlying the lateral aspect of the hip. This regional pain syndrome, once described as trochanteric bursitis, often mimics pain generated from other sources, including, but not limited to myofascial pain, degenerative joint disease, and spinal pathology. The incidence of greater trochanteric pain is reported to be approximately 1.8 patients per 1000 per year with the prevalence being higher in women, and patients with coexisting low back pain, osteoarthritis, iliotibial band tenderness, and obesity. Symptoms of GTPS consist of persistent pain in the lateral hip radiating along the lateral aspect of the thigh to the knee and occasionally below the knee and/or buttock. Physical examination reveals point tenderness in the posterolateral area of the greater trochanter. Most cases of GTPS are self-limited with conservative measures, such as physical therapy, weight loss, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and behavior modification, providing resolution of symptoms. Other treatment modalities include bursa or lateral hip injections performed with corticosteroid and local anesthetic. More invasive surgical interventions have anecdotally been reported to provide pain relief when conservative treatment modalities fail.

Comparison of fluoroscopically guided and blind corticosteroid injections for greater trochanteric pain syndrome: multicentre randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether fluoroscopic guidance improves outcomes of injections for greater trochanteric pain syndrome.

DESIGN

Multicentre double blind randomised controlled study.

SETTING

Three academic and military treatment facilities in the United States and Germany.

PARTICIPANTS

65 patients with a clinical diagnosis of greater trochanteric pain syndrome.

INTERVENTIONS

Injections of corticosteroid and local anaesthetic into the trochanteric bursa, using fluoroscopy (n=32) or landmarks (that is, "blind" injections; n=33) for guidance.

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

0-10 numerical rating scale pain scores at rest and with activity at one month (positive categorical outcome predefined as >or=50% pain reduction either at rest or with activity, coupled with positive global perceived effect). Secondary outcome measures included Oswestry disability scores, SF-36 scores, reduction in drug use, and patients' satisfaction.

RESULTS

No differences in outcomes occurred favouring either the fluoroscopy or blind treatment groups. One month after injection the average pain scores were 2.7 at rest and 5.0 with activity in the fluoroscopy group compared with 2.2 and 4.0 in the blind injection group. Three months after the injection, 15 (47%) patients in the blind group and 13 (41%) in the fluoroscopy group continued to have a positive outcome.

CONCLUSION

Although using fluoroscopic guidance dramatically increases treatment costs for greater trochanteric pain syndrome, it does not necessarily improve outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical trials NCT00480675.

Differential diagnosis of pain around the hip joint

The differential diagnosis of hip pain is broad and includes intra-articular pathology, extra-articular pathology, and mimickers, including the joints of the pelvic ring. With the current advancements in hip arthroscopy, more patients are being evaluated for hip pain. In recent years, our understanding of the functional anatomy around the hip has improved. In addition, because of advancements in magnetic resonance imaging, the diagnosis of soft tissue causes of hip pain has improved. All of these advances have broadened the differential diagnosis of pain around the hip joint and improved the treatment of these problems. In this review, we discuss the causes of intra-articular hip pain that can be addressed arthroscopically: labral tears, loose bodies, femoroacetabular impingement, capsular laxity, tears of the ligamentum teres, and chondral damage. Extra-articular diagnoses that can be managed arthroscopically are also discussed, including: iliopsoas tendonitis, "internal" snapping hip, "external" snapping hip, iliotibial band and greater trochanteric bursitis, and gluteal tendon injury. Finally, we discuss extra-articular causes of hip pain that are often managed nonoperatively or in an open fashion: femoral neck stress fracture, adductor strain, piriformis syndrome, sacroiliac joint pain, athletic pubalgia, "sports hernia," "Gilmore's groin," and osteitis pubis.

Lateral hip pain: findings from magnetic resonance imaging and clinical examination

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the radiological and physical therapy diagnoses of lateral hip pain (LHP), and determine the validity of selected clinical variables for predicting gluteal tendon pathology.

BACKGROUND

LHP is frequently encountered by clinicians. Further investigation is required to establish the specific pathologies implicated in the cause of LHP, and which clinical tests are useful in the assessment of this problem.

METHODS AND MEASURES

Forty patients with unilateral LHP underwent a physical therapy examination followed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies. Three radiologists analyzed the images of both hips for signs of pathology. Interobserver reliability of the image analyses, the agreement between the physical therapy and radiological diagnoses, and the validity of the clinical tests were examined.

RESULTS

Gluteus medius tendon pathology, bursitis, osteoarthritis and gluteal muscle atrophy (predominantly affecting gluteus minimus) were all implicated in the imaging report of LHP. While prevalent in symptomatic hips, abnormalities were also identified in asymptomatic hips, particularly relating to the diagnosis of bursitis. The strength of agreement between radiologists was variable and little agreement existed between the physical therapy and radiological diagnoses of pathology. Nine of the 26 clinical variables examined in relation to gluteal tendon pathology had likelihood ratios above 2.0 or below 0.5, but the associated 95% confidence intervals were large.

CONCLUSIONS

The diagnosis of LHP is challenging and our results highlight some problems associated with the use of MRI as a diagnostic reference standard. This factor, together with the imprecise point estimates of the likelihood ratios, means that no firm conclusions can be made regarding the diagnostic utility of the clinical tests used in the assessment of gluteal tendon pathology.