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Woods CR, Bradley JS, Chatterjee A, Kronman MP, Arnold SR, Robinson J, Copley LA, Arrieta AC, Fowler SL, Harrison C, Eppes SC, Creech CB, Stadler LP, Shah SS, Mazur LJ, Carrillo-Marquez MA, Allen CH, Lavergne V. Clinical Practice Guideline by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): 2023 Guideline on Diagnosis and Management of Acute Bacterial Arthritis in Pediatrics. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 2024; 13:1-59. [PMID: 37941444 DOI: 10.1093/jpids/piad089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
This clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial arthritis (ABA) in children was developed by a multidisciplinary panel representing the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). This guideline is intended for use by healthcare professionals who care for children with ABA, including specialists in pediatric infectious diseases and orthopedics. The panel's recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of ABA are based upon evidence derived from topic-specific systematic literature reviews. Summarized below are the recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of ABA in children. The panel followed a systematic process used in the development of other IDSA and PIDS clinical practice guidelines, which included a standardized methodology for rating the certainty of the evidence and strength of recommendation using the GRADE approach (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) (see Figure 1). A detailed description of background, methods, evidence summary and rationale that support each recommendation, and knowledge gaps can be found online in the full text.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Woods
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center College of Medicine Chattanooga, Chattanooga, Tennessee
| | - John S Bradley
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, and Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California
| | - Archana Chatterjee
- Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois
| | - Matthew P Kronman
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle Children's Hospital, Seattle, Washington
| | - Sandra R Arnold
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Joan Robinson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Lawson A Copley
- Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery and Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, Texas
| | - Antonio C Arrieta
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Orange County and University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Sandra L Fowler
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | | | | | - C Buddy Creech
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Laura P Stadler
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Samir S Shah
- Division of Hospital Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Lynnette J Mazur
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas
| | - Maria A Carrillo-Marquez
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Coburn H Allen
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, Texas
| | - Valéry Lavergne
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- University of Montreal Research Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Nannini A, Giorgino R, Bianco Prevot L, Bobba A, Curci D, Cecchinato R, Peretti GM, Verdoni F, Mangiavini L. Septic arthritis in the pediatric hip joint: a systematic review of diagnosis, management, and outcomes. Front Pediatr 2023; 11:1311862. [PMID: 38188916 PMCID: PMC10771295 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2023.1311862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Septic arthritis of the pediatric hip joint (SAH) is a rare but serious orthopedic emergency requiring immediate diagnosis and management. Delayed recognition can lead to severe complications, emphasizing the need for timely intervention. This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of SAH in the pediatric population, focusing on its diagnosis, management, and outcomes. The review included 11 studies involving 391 patients with SAH, aged between three months and 12 years. Staphylococcus aureus was identified as the most common causative pathogen, with increasing cases of methicillin-resistant strains. Diagnosis is challenging due to nonspecific clinical presentations, necessitating validated criteria and a multidisciplinary approach. Ultrasound emerged as a valuable tool for early detection, and MRI was used in challenging cases. Treatment options include hip aspiration, arthrotomy, and arthroscopy, often combined with appropriate antibiotic therapy. Success rates were comparable among different surgical procedures. Early intervention is vital for optimal outcomes. However, the review highlights the need for standardized protocols and further prospective studies to address limitations and improve understanding and management of SAH in the pediatric hip joint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Nannini
- Residency Program in Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
| | - Riccardo Giorgino
- Residency Program in Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Bianco Prevot
- Residency Program in Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Bobba
- Residency Program in Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Giuseppe M. Peretti
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Laura Mangiavini
- IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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3
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Valisena S, De Marco G, Cochard B, Di Laura Frattura G, Bazin L, Vazquez O, Steiger C, Dayer R, Ceroni D. Is the emergency MRI protocol for acute pediatric osteoarticular infection a luxury or an absolute priority? Front Pediatr 2023; 11:1328870. [PMID: 38155738 PMCID: PMC10753816 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2023.1328870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Valisena
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Division of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giacomo De Marco
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Blaise Cochard
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Division of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giorgio Di Laura Frattura
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ludmilla Bazin
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Oscar Vazquez
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Christina Steiger
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Romain Dayer
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Ceroni
- Pediatric Orthopedics Unit, Pediatric Surgery Service, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
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Hachem A, Copley LAB. What's New in Pediatric Septic Arthritis? A Review of Pertinent Clinical Questions. J Pediatr Orthop 2023; 43:578-583. [PMID: 37332197 DOI: 10.1097/bpo.0000000000002453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The evaluation and treatment of children with septic arthritis (SA) is challenging and requires an organized approach to address the spectrum of pathogens which appear to aggregate in age-specific groups. Although evidence-based guidelines have recently been published for the evaluation and treatment of children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, there is a relative dearth of literature devoted exclusively to SA. METHODS Recently published guidance for the evaluation and treatment of children with SA was reviewed and evaluated with respect to pertinent clinical questions to summarize what is new in this area of practice for pediatric orthopaedic surgeons. RESULTS Evidence suggests that there is a profound difference between children with primary SA and those who have contiguous osteomyelitis. This disruption of the commonly accepted paradigm of a continuum of osteoarticular infections has important implications in the evaluation and treatment of children with primary SA. Clinical prediction algorithms have been established to help determine the applicability of magnetic resonance imaging during the evaluation of children suspected to have SA. Antibiotic duration for SA has been recently studied with some evidence in favor of short-course parenteral followed by short-course oral therapy may be successful if the pathogen is not methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . CONCLUSION Recent studies of children with SA have provided better guidance for evaluation and treatment to improve diagnostic accuracy, processes of evaluation, and clinical outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Hachem
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine-Jacksonville, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL
| | - Lawson A B Copley
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, TX
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Danilov C, Fernandez FF, Wirth T, Eberhardt O. Relevant factors in the diagnosis of concomitant osteomyelitis in pediatric hip septic arthritis. A series of 41 cases treated by hip arthroscopy. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 2023; 143:1825-1832. [PMID: 35152332 DOI: 10.1007/s00402-022-04371-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Septic arthritis of the hip can appear isolated or concomitant with pelvic osteomyelitis. Delay in the diagnosis of a concomitant osteomyelitis increases the number of required surgeries and of possible complications. PURPOSE This study aims to establish relevant factors in the diagnosis of concomitant osteomyelitis in cases with septic arthritis of the hip among paediatric patients. METHODS The data were collected between 2005 and 2020. 41 pediatric patients with suspicion of septic arthritis of the hip joint, treated arthroscopically, were included. The following diagnostic test parameters were collected: ultrasound, MRI, X-Rays, blood samples, temperature, and incapacity to bear weight. The data were analysed with the sensitive analysis method using descriptive statistic. RESULTS 41 patients were analyzed, with an average age of 6.04 y (7 months to 14 years), of which ten patients (24.39%) presented concomitant osteomyelitis. 6 out of ten patients needed secondary surgery. Regarding age, concomitant osteomyelitis was most common in the age group 4-14 years old. Average number of days of clinical symptoms before admission was 6.2 days. 36/41 cases showed CRP values higher than 2 mg/dl. 9/10 cases with concomitant osteomyelitis showed a CRP > 2 mg/dl, with an average value of 8.9 mg/dl. 22/41 patients underwent an MRI, of which nine cases presented a concomitant osteomyelitis. The probability of a child to have septic arthritis of the hip with adjacent osteomyelitis was analysed through a score based on four factors: impossibility to bear weight and/or hip pain in children in the non-walking age category, CRP > 2 mg/dl, age older than > 4 y, symptoms longer than 4 days. CONCLUSIONS Children at the age of walking, with incapacity to bear weight, presenting symptoms longer than 4 days and a CRP > 2 mg/dl, should receive an MRI before surgery to exclude adjacent osteomyelitis. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cezara Danilov
- Orthopaedic Department, Olgahospital Stuttgart, Kriegsbergstrasse 62, 70174, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - F F Fernandez
- Orthopaedic Department, Olgahospital Stuttgart, Kriegsbergstrasse 62, 70174, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - T Wirth
- Orthopaedic Department, Olgahospital Stuttgart, Kriegsbergstrasse 62, 70174, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - O Eberhardt
- Orthopaedic Department, Olgahospital Stuttgart, Kriegsbergstrasse 62, 70174, Stuttgart, Germany
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Hunter S, Fernando H, Baker JF. The Brighton Spondylodiscitis Score Does Not Accurately Predict the Need for Surgery: A Retrospective Cohort Study in New Zealand. Global Spine J 2022; 12:1814-1820. [PMID: 33601908 PMCID: PMC9609505 DOI: 10.1177/2192568221989296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. OBJECTIVES Despite pyogenic spondylodiscitis potentially conferring significant morbidity, there is no consensus on optimal treatment. The Brighton Spondylodiscitis Score (BSDS) was developed to identify patients who would likely fail conservative management and therefore benefit from earlier surgical intervention. In this study, we attempt external validation of the BSDS. METHODS We carried out a retrospective review of all patients treated at our institution, 2010-2016, for pyogenic spondylodiscitis. 91 met inclusion criteria and 40 progressed to require surgical intervention. The BSDS was calculated for each patient allowing stratification into low-, moderate- and high-risk groups. Calibration and discrimination was assessed with ROC curve analysis and calibration plot. RESULTS Area under the curve (AUC) was 0.469 (0.22-0.71) in our external validation, compared with AUC 0.83 and 0.71 (CI 0.50-0.88) in the original study and test populations respectively. Only 60% of patients in the high-risk group required surgery, 50% in the moderate, and 38% of the low indicating poor calibration and predictive accuracy. Operative intervention was not higher overall in our cohort (44% vs. 32%, p = 0.14). We found greater rates of bacteraemia, more distal infection, and more advanced MRI findings in our cohort. The incidence of spondylodiscitis in our region is higher (4/100 000/year). CONCLUSION We failed to externally validate the BSDS in our population which is likely a result of unique population characteristics and the inherently variable pathology associated with spondylodiscitis. Clinicians must be cautious in adopting treatment algorithms developed in other health care systems that may comprise significantly different patient and pathogen characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Hunter
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Waikato Hospital, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand,Sarah Hunter, Department of Orthopaedic
Surgery, Waikato Hospital, University of Auckland, Pembroke St, Hamilton 3204,
New Zealand.
| | | | - Joseph F. Baker
- Department of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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7
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Shet NS, Iyer RS, Chan SS, Baldwin K, Chandra T, Chen J, Cooper ML, Creech CB, Gill AE, Levin TL, Moore MM, Nadel HR, Saidinejad M, Schooler GR, Squires JH, Swenson DW, Rigsby CK. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Osteomyelitis or Septic Arthritis-Child (Excluding Axial Skeleton). J Am Coll Radiol 2022; 19:S121-S136. [PMID: 35550797 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacr.2022.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Imaging plays an integral role in the evaluation of suspected musculoskeletal infections in children, not only in the accurate identification of infection such as osteomyelitis or septic arthritis, but also in guiding management. Various diagnostic modalities serve different purposes in the assessment of suspected pediatric musculoskeletal infections. The purpose of this document is to provide imaging guidance in the most frequently encountered clinical scenarios in which osteomyelitis and/or septic arthritis are suspected, outside of the axial skeleton. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narendra S Shet
- Children's National Hospital, Washington, District of Columbia.
| | - Ramesh S Iyer
- Panel Chair, Seattle Children's Hospital, Seattle, Washington; and Chair, SPCC (CoPLL)
| | - Sherwin S Chan
- Panel Vice-Chair, Vice Chair of Radiology, Children's Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri
| | - Keith Baldwin
- Associate Professor, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons
| | - Tushar Chandra
- Magnetic Resonance Medical Director, Chief of Research, Chief of Medical Education, Co-director of 3D and Advanced Imaging Lab, Nemours Children's Hospital, Orlando, Florida
| | - Jimmy Chen
- University of Florida College of Medicine Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida; American Academy of Pediatrics
| | - Matthew L Cooper
- Pediatric Radiology Division Chief, Radiology Medical Director, Riley Hospital for Children, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - C Buddy Creech
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Infectious Diseases Society of America; and President, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society
| | - Anne E Gill
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Terry L Levin
- The Children's Hospital at Montefiore, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York; Chair ACR Pediatric Practice Parameters
| | - Michael M Moore
- Co-director, Division of Radiology Innovation and Value Enhancement (DRIVE), Penn State Health Children's Hospital, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Helen R Nadel
- Lucile Packard Children's Hospital at Stanford, Stanford, California; Member Committee on Practice Parameters-Pediatric ACR; and Alternate to Senate Stanford University School of Medicine
| | - Mohsen Saidinejad
- UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California; American College of Emergency Physicians; and Director, Institute for Health Services and Outcomes Research-The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor UCLA
| | | | - Judy H Squires
- Chief of Ultrasound; Associate Program Director for Diagnostic Radiology, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - David W Swenson
- Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Cynthia K Rigsby
- Specialty Chair, Department of Medical Imaging, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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Hunter S, Kioa G, Baker JF. Predictive Algorithms in the Diagnosis and Management of Pediatric Hip and Periarticular Infection. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2022; 104:649-658. [PMID: 35167503 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.21.01040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
➤ Although the criteria of Kocher et al. were an important advancement in our ability to diagnose septic arthritis of the hip early, the changing microbial landscape and availability of advanced imaging have rendered it insufficient for contemporary clinical use.➤ Routine use of magnetic resonance imaging and recognition of disseminated disease have prompted the development of algorithms to predict concurrent osteoarticular infection in cases of septic arthritis and osteomyelitis that were previously assumed to be "isolated."➤ Recent research has attempted to stratify childhood bone and joint infection (BJI) by severity to guide treatment planning. This is valuable, as patients with multifocal disease, more virulent pathogens, and immunocompromise can have longer hospital stays and require multiple surgeries.➤ The increasing prevalence of clinical prediction algorithms in childhood BJI is not completely matched by quality in methodology. Clinicians need to be wary of adopting predictive algorithms prior to robust external validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Hunter
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Waikato Hospital, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Georgina Kioa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hawke's Bay Hospital, Hastings, New Zealand
| | - Joseph F Baker
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Waikato Hospital, Hamilton, New Zealand
- Department of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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9
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Global epidemiology of childhood bone and joint infection: a systematic review. Infection 2022; 50:329-341. [DOI: 10.1007/s15010-021-01741-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Predicting adjacent infections in pediatric septic arthritis: Do predictive criteria extrapolate across geographic regions?: Predicting Periarticular Infection in the Southeast. J Orthop 2021; 28:53-57. [PMID: 34840482 DOI: 10.1016/j.jor.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aims to assess previously determined predictive criteria for presence of adjacent infection in septic arthritis within a Southeastern United States (US) pediatric population. Results The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of the Rosenfeld criteria were: 91.7%, 22.7%, 39.3%, and 83.3%, respectively. The patients with periarticular infection were more likely to have positive blood cultures than those with isolated septic arthritis. There was no difference in likelihood of secondary surgical intervention. Conclusions Previously defined criteria to predict adjacent infection in pediatric septic arthritis did not demonstrate external validity in a Southeastern US pediatric population.
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Butt FE, Lee EY, Chaturvedi A. Pediatric Musculoskeletal Infections: Imaging Guidelines and Recommendations. Radiol Clin North Am 2021; 60:165-177. [PMID: 34836563 DOI: 10.1016/j.rcl.2021.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric musculoskeletal infections often pose a diagnostic challenge due to their frequently vague and nonspecific clinical presentation. Imaging evaluation is a crucial component to diagnostic workup of these entities. Changed epidemiology of these infections over the past 2 decades has resulted in increases in both disease incidence and severity in the pediatric population. Prompt and accurate diagnosis is essential in order to reduce the risk of morbid sequelae, and to optimize patient management. In this article, the unique pathophysiology of musculoskeletal infections and characteristic imaging findings in children compared with adults are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick E Butt
- Department of Radiology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, One Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
| | - Edward Y Lee
- Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Apeksha Chaturvedi
- Department of Imaging Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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12
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Jain MJ, Bradko V, Zhu H, Inneh I, Shinava VR. Pediatric osteoarticular infection: trend in surgically treated patients and association of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with requirement of secondary procedures. J Pediatr Orthop B 2021; 30:579-584. [PMID: 33038147 DOI: 10.1097/bpb.0000000000000819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Acute pediatric osteoarticular infection demonstrates variability in both presentation and response to treatment. Many respond to antibiotics ± single operation, while some require multiple surgeries. Currently, it is difficult to predict who may require additional procedures. Infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have been associated with more complications. The purpose of this study is to determine MRSA trends and degree of association with the occurrence of multiple procedures. We performed a retrospective analysis of surgically treated pediatric (1 month-18 years) patients for acute osteomyelitis and septic arthritis at a tertiary children's hospital from 2003-2017. The cohort was divided into single-procedure and multiple-procedure groups. A total of 753 patients were studied with a mean age of 7.05 years (2.4 months-17.9 years). We identified 645/753 (85.6%) patients who were treated with a single-procedure and 108/753 (14.4%) patients who required multiple- procedures. The lower extremity (hip, knee, tibia, and femur) was most commonly involved. The epidemiologic trend runs almost parallel between two groups with a peak in 2009. The odds ratio for multiple-procedures was 2.0 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.2-3.1; P = 0.002] with dual infection (osteomyelitis + septic arthritis), 2.6 (95% CI, 1.6-4.4; P = 0.001) with high-risk conditions and 4.6 (95% CI, 3.0-7.1; P < 0.001) if MRSA was present. MRSA significantly predicts the requirement of additional operative procedures for the treatment of osteoarticular infections in children. Besides clinical deterioration and other markers, the presence of MRSA can be a considerable indicator for a planned secondary-procedure. Level III retrospective cohort study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohit J Jain
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Children's Hospital
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Viachaslau Bradko
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Children's Hospital
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Huirong Zhu
- Outcomes and Statistical Services, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ifeoma Inneh
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Children's Hospital
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Vinitha R Shinava
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Children's Hospital
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine
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13
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Hamilton EC, Villani MC, Klosterman MM, Jo C, Liu J, Copley LAB. Children with Primary Septic Arthritis Have a Markedly Lower Risk of Adverse Outcomes Than Those with Contiguous Osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2021; 103:1229-1237. [PMID: 33844667 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.20.01685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is widely believed that septic arthritis poses a risk of joint destruction and long-term adverse outcomes for children if not treated emergently. In the present study, children who had primary confirmed septic arthritis were compared with those who had septic arthritis and adjacent osteomyelitis to evaluate differences that affect the relative risk of adverse outcomes. METHODS Children who underwent multidisciplinary treatment for septic arthritis with or without contiguous osteomyelitis between 2009 and 2019 were retrospectively studied. Clinical, laboratory, treatment, and outcome data were compared between cohorts of children with primary confirmed septic arthritis and children with septic arthritis and contiguous osteomyelitis. RESULTS One hundred and thirty-four children had primary confirmed septic arthritis, and 105 children had septic arthritis with contiguous osteomyelitis. Children with osteomyelitis were older (median, 7.4 versus 2.4 years), had higher initial C-reactive protein (median, 15.7 versus 6.4 mg/dL), and had a higher rate of thrombocytopenia (21.0% versus 1.5%). They also had a higher rate of bacteremia (69.5% versus 20.2%) for a longer duration (median, 2.0 versus 1.0 days). Detected pathogens in children with osteomyelitis as compared with those with primary septic arthritis were more likely to be Staphylococcus aureus (77.1% versus 32.1%) and less likely to be Kingella kingae (2.9% versus 32.1%). Children with contiguous osteomyelitis had longer hospitalizations (median, 8.0 versus 4.0 days), a higher rate of intensive care (21.0% versus 1.5%), a higher readmission rate (17.1% versus 5.2%), and a higher complication rate (38.1% versus 0.7%). CONCLUSIONS Primary septic arthritis in children is dissimilar to septic arthritis associated with osteomyelitis. The present study demonstrates that long-term adverse outcomes in children with septic arthritis are likely due to the contiguous osteomyelitis. Children with primary septic arthritis are sufficiently distinguishable from those who have contiguous osteomyelitis to guide decisions for magnetic resonance imaging acquisition, duration of antibiotic therapy, and length of outpatient follow-up in order to recognize and address adverse outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Chanhee Jo
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, Texas
| | - Jie Liu
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, Texas
| | - Lawson A B Copley
- Children's Health System of Texas, Dallas, Texas.,Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, Texas.,University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas Texas
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14
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Swarup I, Meza BC, Weltsch D, Jina AA, Lawrence JT, Baldwin KD. Septic Arthritis of the Knee in Children: A Critical Analysis Review. JBJS Rev 2021; 8:e0069. [PMID: 32105243 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.rvw.19.00069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
» Septic arthritis of the knee is the most common type of septic arthritis in children, and it may result in irreversible joint damage.
» Staphylococcus aureus is the most common pathogen associated with septic arthritis, but other causative pathogens are possible in children with certain risk factors.
» The diagnosis of septic arthritis of the knee is based on history and physical examination, blood tests, and arthrocentesis.
» Empiric treatment with anti-staphylococcal penicillin or a first-generation cephalosporin is usually recommended but may be tailored according to local resistance patterns and clinical culture data.
» Open or arthroscopic surgical debridement including extensive lavage is effective in eradicating infection, and most patients do not require additional surgical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishaan Swarup
- UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital, Oakland, California
| | - Blake C Meza
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Daniel Weltsch
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - John T Lawrence
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Keith D Baldwin
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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15
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Qian Z, Mamtimin A, Zhang X, Xu B, Mu W, Cao L. Mid-Term Outcomes of Cementless Total Hip Arthroplasty in Adult Patients with Childhood Hip Infection. Med Sci Monit 2021; 27:e930760. [PMID: 33712550 PMCID: PMC7968116 DOI: 10.12659/msm.930760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with hip joint infections in childhood often have many aftereffects of different degrees, regardless of the kind of treatment or natural course. Total hip arthroplasty is currently the most effective treatment for sequelae of childhood hip septic or tuberculous infection. This is a mid-term follow-up study of treatment results of patients who had undergone total hip arthroplasty (THA) with cementless prostheses. MATERIAL AND METHODS We retrospectively analyzed and followed 45 patients (45 hips) who underwent THA with cementless prostheses between 2010 and 2017. There were 45 patients, including 17 men and 28 women. The average age of the patients was 46 years (range, 18-67 years). All hip infections occurred in early childhood or adolescence, and the mean interval between initial infection and THA was 38.2 years (range, 15-60 years). The mean follow-up was 6.1 years (range, 2.7-9.5 years). RESULTS Two patients underwent revision surgery because of loosening of the prosthesis, and 1 patient underwent revision surgery because of a new infection with no relationship with childhood infection during the follow-up. The average Harris hip scores significantly increased from 43.1 to 86.4 (P<0.01), and the average visual analog scale significantly increased from 4.6 to 1.7 (P<0.01). The hip dysfunction and osteoarthritis outcome scores were also significantly changed (P<0.01) at the final follow-up. There were 2 cases of transient sciatic nerve palsy and intraoperative periprosthetic fractures in 3 cases. During follow-up, single revision was performed after 6 years of primary arthroplasty because of aseptic loosening in 2 cases and prosthesis infection in 1 case, which was not related to childhood pathogens. CONCLUSIONS THA for patients with sequelae of hip joint infection has a satisfactory effect that can effectively relieve joint pain and improve hip function. The recurrence rate of infection after either pyogenic infection or tuberculous is very low. The mid-term outcomes of THA in this setting were satisfactory, with high prosthesis survivorship and hip function scores.
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16
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External Validation of an Algorithm to Predict Adjacent Musculoskeletal Infection in Pediatric Patients With Septic Arthritis. J Pediatr Orthop 2021; 40:e999-e1004. [PMID: 32740178 DOI: 10.1097/bpo.0000000000001618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Septic arthritis (SA) remains a potentially morbid disease in the pediatric population. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most sensitive tool for recognizing associated osteomyelitis and intramuscular abscess, but is a limited resource. The aim of this study is to externally validate a previously developed algorithm (Rosenfeld and colleagues) to predict adjacent infection in pediatric patients diagnosed with SA. METHODS We identified 120 children under 16 with presumed SA presenting to a tertiary referral center between 2008 and 2018. Patients without confirmed SA, those with insufficient data, and patients who did not receive perioperative MRI were excluded, leaving 53 patients. The previous algorithm suggests that patient age (above 4 y), C-reactive protein (>8.9 mg/L), platelet count (<310×10cells/µL), duration of symptoms (>3 d), and absolute neutrophil count (>7.2×10cells/µL) are risk factors for adjacent infection, with 3 or more variables signifying a "positive" result. Comparing against the gold standard of MRI, the accuracy of the algorithm was validated in terms of sensitivity, specificity, likelihood ratio (LR), and positive and negative predictive value. Discrimination and calibration of this algorithm have been assessed using receiver operating curve analysis and calibration plots. RESULTS The sensitivity and specificity of criteria from Rosenfeld algorithm were 73% and 44%, respectively. Receiver operating curve showed poor discrimination [area under the curve=0.54, confidence interval (CI): 0.26-0.83]. The positive predictive value was 55.9% and the negative predictive value was 63.1% with LR +1.23 (CI: 0.87-1.98) and LR -0.61 (CI 0.28-1.30). Only 53% of patients with 4 or more criteria had an adjacent infection on MRI. Examining our cohort, children with a positive MRI finding had higher mean C-reactive protein (77 vs. 122 mg/L, P=0.04) and were more likely to have waited >72 hours days between symptom onset and hospital presentation (P=0.03). CONCLUSION Although treatment algorithms are an attractive tool to guide clinicians and resource allocation, they need to take into account the local population characteristics before routine implementation. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level IV-retrospective cohort study.
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17
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Current Concepts in Pediatric Septic Arthritis. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2021; 29:196-206. [PMID: 33273402 DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-20-00835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Septic arthritis continues to present challenges regarding the clinical diagnosis, workup, and definitive management. Urgent management is essential, so treating surgeons must efficiently work through differential diagnoses, identify concomitant infections, and do a timely irrigation and débridement. The incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is increasing, typically resulting in a more rapid progression of symptoms with more severe clinical presentation. The diagnostic utility of MRI has resulted in improved detection of concomitant septic arthritis and osteomyelitis, although MRI must not substantially delay definitive management. Early diagnosis followed by urgent irrigation and débridement and antibiotic therapy are essential for satisfactory long-term outcomes. Antibiotics should not be administered until blood cultures and arthrocentesis fluid are obtained, except in rare cases of a septic or toxic patient. Once cultures are obtained, empiric antibiotic therapy should commence and provide coverage for the most likely pathogens, given the patient's age. Laboratory markers, especially C-reactive protein, should be followed until normalization and correlate with resolution of clinical symptoms. Definitive antibiotic selection should be shared with a pediatric infectious disease specialist, who can help guide the duration of treatment.
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18
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Michalowitz A, Yang J, Castaneda P, Litrenta J. Existing and emerging methods of diagnosis and monitoring of pediatric musculoskeletal infection. Injury 2020; 51:2110-2117. [PMID: 32732117 DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2020.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Methods of diagnosing and monitoring pediatric musculoskeletal infections are rapidly evolving. Key serologic tests are typically used in screening patients with suspected infections, and remain an integral part of the initial work-up. Synovial studies from arthrocentesis in possible septic arthritis, and source-specific cultures have been the foundation of our treatment algorithm. Given the prevalence of soft tissue abscesses and osteoarticular infections, advanced imaging is an advantageous tool. More affordable use and expanded access to MRI has made it a valuable adjunct to clinical picture and existing tests in order to comprehensively visualize the extent of musculoskeletal infections in children. Ongoing validation for criteria to help determine the patients that stand to benefit the most from MRI, even when surgical intervention may be delayed, remains of significant clinical interest. Given the rates of culture-negative infections, and the need for timely diagnosis, new diagnostic techniques are always being considered. The search for more accurate biomarkers, and technology such as Whole genome sequencing (WGS) and next-generation sequencing (NGS) that can rapidly identify pathogens of all types of phyla based on a small sample of DNA, has promising clinical implications. While once novel and prohibitively expensive, these tests are now being applied in university and tertiary care centers in certain scenarios. Applying these techniques to pediatric musculoskeletal will require a large change in lab workflow and training. However, the benefits of acquiring diagnostic information along with will make them a superior tool in our arsenal of diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Michalowitz
- NYU Langone Orthopedic Hospital, 301 E. 17th St., New York, NY 10003, United States.
| | - Jenny Yang
- NYU Langone Orthopedic Hospital, 301 E. 17th St., New York, NY 10003, United States.
| | - Pablo Castaneda
- NYU Langone Orthopedic Hospital, 301 E. 17th St., New York, NY 10003, United States.
| | - Jody Litrenta
- NYU Langone Orthopedic Hospital, 301 E. 17th St., New York, NY 10003, United States.
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19
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Septic Arthritis: An Evidence-Based Review of Diagnosis and Image-Guided Aspiration. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 215:568-581. [PMID: 32783556 DOI: 10.2214/ajr.20.22773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this evidence-based review is to equip radiologists to discuss and interpret findings obtained with various imaging modalities, guide patient selection for percutaneous aspiration, and safely perform arthrocentesis to assess for infection in both native and prosthetic joints. CONCLUSION. Septic arthritis is an emergency that can lead to rapidly progressive, irreversible joint damage. Despite the urgency associated with this diagnosis, there remains a lack of consensus regarding many aspects of the management of native and periprosthetic joint infections.
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20
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Swarup I, LaValva S, Shah R, Sankar WN. Septic Arthritis of the Hip in Children: A Critical Analysis Review. JBJS Rev 2020; 8:e0103. [PMID: 32224630 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.rvw.19.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Septic arthritis of the hip is a common and potentially devastating condition in children. Septic arthritis is most commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus, but other pathogens should be considered on the basis of patient age and presence of risk factors. Diagnosis of septic arthritis is based on history and physical examination, laboratory tests, radiographs, ultrasound, and arthrocentesis. Treatment comprises empiric antibiotics and joint debridement, and antibiotics are subsequently tailored on the basis of culture data, local resistance patterns, and clinical response. Late sequelae of septic arthritis include osteonecrosis, chondrolysis, growth disturbance, subluxation or dislocation, and progressive ankylosis. Surgical treatments to address these issues have been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishaan Swarup
- UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital, Oakland, California
| | - Scott LaValva
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ronit Shah
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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21
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Abstract
Septic arthritis in children is a surgical emergency, and prompt diagnosis and treatment are mandatory. If diagnosed quickly and treated correctly, the outcomes can be good. With delay in diagnosis and without proper treatment, outcomes often are quite devastating, with growth disturbance and joint destruction.
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Welling BD, Haruno LS, Rosenfeld SB. Validating an Algorithm to Predict Adjacent Musculoskeletal Infections in Pediatric Patients With Septic Arthritis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2018; 476:153-159. [PMID: 29389760 PMCID: PMC5919251 DOI: 10.1007/s11999.0000000000000019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Septic arthritis is frequently associated with adjacent infections including osteomyelitis and subperiosteal and intramuscular abscesses. While often clinically indiscernible from isolated septic arthritis, the diagnosis of adjacent infections is important in determining the need for additional surgical intervention. MRI has been used as the diagnostic gold standard for assessing adjacent infection. Routine MRI, however, can be resource-intensive and delay surgical treatment. In this context, there is need for additional diagnostic tools to assist clinicians in determining when to obtain preoperative MRI in children with septic arthritis. In a previous investigation by Rosenfeld et al., an algorithm, based on presenting laboratory values and symptoms, was derived to predict adjacent infections in septic arthritis. The clinical applicability of the algorithm was limited, however, in that it was built from and applied on the same population. The current study was done to address this criticism by evaluating the predictive power of the algorithm on a new patient population. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES (1) Can a previously created algorithm used for predicting adjacent infection in septic arthritis among pediatric patients be validated in a separate population? METHODS Records for all pediatric patients (1-18 years old) surgically treated for suspected septic arthritis during a 3-year period were retrospectively reviewed (109 patients). Of these patients, only those with a diagnosis of septic arthritis confirmed by synovial fluid analysis were included in the study population. Patients without confirmation of septic arthritis via synovial fluid analysis, Gram stain, or culture were excluded (34 patients). Patients with absence of MRI, younger than 1 year, insufficient laboratory tests, or confounding concurrent illnesses also were excluded (18 patients), resulting in a total of 57 patients in the study population. Five variables which previously were shown to be associated with risk of adjacent infection were collected: patient age (older than 4 years), duration of symptoms (> 3 days), C-reactive protein (> 8.9 mg/L), platelet count (< 310 x 10 cells/µL), and absolute neutrophil count (> 7.2 x 10 cells/µL). Adjacent infections were determined exclusively by preoperative MRI, with all patients in this study undergoing preoperative MRI. MR images were read by pediatric musculoskeletal radiologists and reviewed by the senior author. According to the algorithm we considered the presence of three or more threshold-level variables as a "positive" result, meaning the patient was predicted to have an adjacent infection. Comparing against the gold standard of MRI, the algorithm's accuracy was evaluated in terms of sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value. RESULTS In the new population, the sensitivity and specificity of the algorithm were 86% (95% CI, 0.70-0.95) and 85% (95% CI, 0.64-0.97), respectively. The positive predictive value was determined to be 91% (95% CI, 0.78-0.97), with a negative predictive value of 77% (95% CI, 0.61-0.89). All patients meeting four or more algorithm criteria were found to have septic arthritis with adjacent infection on MRI. CONCLUSIONS Critical to the clinical applicability of the above-mentioned algorithm was its validation on a separate population different from the one from which it was built. In this study, the algorithm showed reproducible predictive power when tested on a new population. This model potentially can serve as a useful tool to guide patient risk stratification when determining the likelihood of adjacent infection and need of MRI. This better-informed clinical judgement regarding the need for MRI may yield improvements in patient outcomes, resource allocation, and cost. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level II, diagnostic study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Welling
- B. D. WellingBaylor College of Medicine, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Houston, TX, USA L. S. Haruno, S. B. RosenfeldTexas Children's Hospital, Division of Orthopedic Surgery, Houston, TX, USA
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