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Markovska A, Somers K, Guillaume J, Melief J, Mazar AP, Schmitt DM, Schipper HS, Boes M. Targeted inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 using 9-ING-41 (elraglusib) enhances CD8 T-cell-reactivity against neuroblastoma cells. Sci Rep 2024; 14:21710. [PMID: 39289439 PMCID: PMC11408500 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-72492-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma remains poor, partly due to inadequate immune recognition of the tumor. Neuroblastomas display extremely low surface MHC-I, preventing recognition by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and contributing to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) is involved in pathways that may affect the MHC-I antigen processing and presentation pathway. We proposed that therapeutic inhibition of GSK-3β might improve the surface display of MHC-I molecules on neuroblastoma cells, and therefore tested if targeting of GSK-3β using the inhibitor 9-ING-41 (Elraglusib) improves MHC-I-mediated CTL recognition. We analyzed mRNA expression data of neuroblastoma tumor datasets and found that non-MYCN-amplified neuroblastomas express higher GSK-3β levels than MYCN-amplified tumors. In non-MYCN-amplified cells SH-SY5Y, SK-N-AS and SK-N-SH 9-ING-41 treatment enhanced MHC-I surface display and the expression levels of a subset of genes involved in MHC-I antigen processing and presentation. Further, 9-ING-41 treatment triggered increased STAT1 pathway activation, upstream of antigen presentation pathways in two of the three non-MYCN-amplified cell lines. Finally, in co-culture experiments with CD8 + T cells, 9-ING-41 improved immune recognition of the neuroblastoma cells, as evidenced by augmented T-cell activation marker levels and T-cell proliferation, which was further enhanced by PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibition. Our preclinical study provides experimental support to further explore the GSK-3β inhibitor 9-ING-41 as an immunomodulatory agent to increase tumor immune recognition in neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Markovska
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - K Somers
- Lowy Cancer Research Centre, Children's Cancer Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - J Guillaume
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J Melief
- Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - A P Mazar
- Actuate Therapeutics, Fort Worth, TX, 76107, USA
| | - D M Schmitt
- Actuate Therapeutics, Fort Worth, TX, 76107, USA
| | - H S Schipper
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Pediatric Cardiology, Sophia Children's Hospital, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Boes
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA, The Netherlands.
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Choudhary S, Singh MK, Kashyap S, Seth R, Singh L. Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway in Pediatric Tumors: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 11:700. [PMID: 38929279 PMCID: PMC11201634 DOI: 10.3390/children11060700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The evolutionarily conserved Wnt signaling has a significant and diverse role in maintaining cell homeostasis and tissue maintenance. It is necessary in the regulation of crucial biological functions such as embryonal development, proliferation, differentiation, cell fate, and stem cell pluripotency. The deregulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling often leads to various diseases, including cancer and non-cancer diseases. The role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in adult tumors has been extensively studied in literature. Although the Wnt signaling pathway has been well explored and recognized to play a role in the initiation and progression of cancer, there is still a lack of understanding on how it affects pediatric tumors. This review discusses the recent developments of this signaling pathway in pediatric tumors. We also focus on understanding how different types of variations in Wnt signaling pathway contribute to cancer development and provide an insight of tissue specific mutations that lead to clinical progression of these tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Choudhary
- Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India; (S.C.); (R.S.)
| | | | - Seema Kashyap
- Department of Ocular Pathology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India;
| | - Rachna Seth
- Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India; (S.C.); (R.S.)
| | - Lata Singh
- Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India; (S.C.); (R.S.)
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Cooney LN, O’Shea KD, Winfield HJ, Cahill MM, Pierce LT, McCarthy FO. Bisindolyl Maleimides and Indolylmaleimide Derivatives-A Review of Their Synthesis and Bioactivity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1191. [PMID: 37764999 PMCID: PMC10534823 DOI: 10.3390/ph16091191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of bisindolyl maleimides and indolyl maleimide derivatives and their unique biological activities have stimulated great interest in medicinal chemistry programs. Bisindolylmaleimide (BIM)-type compounds arise from natural sources such as arcyriarubin and are biosynthetically related to indolocarbazoles. BIMs are commonly the immediate synthetic precursors of indolocarbazoles, lacking a central bond between the two aromatic units and making them more flexible and drug-like. Synthetic endeavours within this class of compounds are broad and have led to the development of both remarkably potent and selective protein kinase inhibitors. Clinical BIM examples include ruboxistaurin and enzastaurin, which are highly active inhibitors of protein kinase C-β. While BIMs are widely recognised as protein kinase inhibitors, other modes of activity have been reported, including the inhibition of calcium signalling and antimicrobial activity. Critically, structural differences can be used to exploit new bioactivity and therefore it is imperative to discover new chemical entities to address new targets. BIMs can be highly functionalised or chemically manipulated, which provides the opportunity to generate new derivatives with unique biological profiles. This review will collate new synthetic approaches to BIM-type compounds and their associated bioactivities with a focus on clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Florence O. McCarthy
- School of Chemistry and ABCRF, University College Cork, Western Road, T12K8AF Cork, Ireland; (L.N.C.); (K.D.O.); (H.J.W.); (M.M.C.); (L.T.P.)
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Huntington KE, Louie AD, Srinivasan PR, Schorl C, Lu S, Silverberg D, Newhouse D, Wu Z, Zhou L, Borden BA, Giles FJ, Dooner M, Carneiro BA, El-Deiry WS. GSK-3 Inhibitor Elraglusib Enhances Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cell Activation in Tumor Biopsies and Synergizes with Anti-PD-L1 in a Murine Model of Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10870. [PMID: 37446056 PMCID: PMC10342141 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase that has been implicated in numerous oncogenic processes. GSK-3 inhibitor elraglusib (9-ING-41) has shown promising preclinical and clinical antitumor activity across multiple tumor types. Despite promising early-phase clinical trial results, there have been limited efforts to characterize the potential immunomodulatory properties of elraglusib. We report that elraglusib promotes immune cell-mediated tumor cell killing of microsatellite stable colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. Mechanistically, elraglusib sensitized CRC cells to immune-mediated cytotoxicity and enhanced immune cell effector function. Using western blots, we found that elraglusib decreased CRC cell expression of NF-κB p65 and several survival proteins. Using microarrays, we discovered that elraglusib upregulated the expression of proapoptotic and antiproliferative genes and downregulated the expression of cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, metastasis, TGFβ signaling, and anti-apoptotic genes in CRC cells. Elraglusib reduced CRC cell production of immunosuppressive molecules such as VEGF, GDF-15, and sPD-L1. Elraglusib increased immune cell IFN-γ secretion, which upregulated CRC cell gasdermin B expression to potentially enhance pyroptosis. Elraglusib enhanced immune effector function resulting in augmented granzyme B, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and TRAIL production. Using a syngeneic, immunocompetent murine model of microsatellite stable CRC, we evaluated elraglusib as a single agent or combined with immune checkpoint blockade (anti-PD-1/L1) and observed improved survival in the elraglusib and anti-PD-L1 group. Murine responders had increased tumor-infiltrating T cells, augmented granzyme B expression, and fewer regulatory T cells. Murine responders had reduced immunosuppressive (VEGF, VEGFR2) and elevated immunostimulatory (GM-CSF, IL-12p70) cytokine plasma concentrations. To determine the clinical significance, we then utilized elraglusib-treated patient plasma samples and found that reduced VEGF and BAFF and elevated IL-1 beta, CCL22, and CCL4 concentrations correlated with improved survival. Using paired tumor biopsies, we found that tumor-infiltrating immune cells had a reduced expression of inhibitory immune checkpoints (VISTA, PD-1, PD-L2) and an elevated expression of T-cell activation markers (CTLA-4, OX40L) after elraglusib treatment. These results address a significant gap in knowledge concerning the immunomodulatory mechanisms of GSK-3 inhibitor elraglusib, provide a rationale for the clinical evaluation of elraglusib in combination with immune checkpoint blockade, and are expected to have an impact on additional tumor types, besides CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey E. Huntington
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Laboratory of Translational Oncology and Experimental Cancer Therapeutics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Pathobiology Graduate Program, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Anna D. Louie
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Laboratory of Translational Oncology and Experimental Cancer Therapeutics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Department of Surgery, Lifespan Health System, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Praveen R. Srinivasan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Laboratory of Translational Oncology and Experimental Cancer Therapeutics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Christoph Schorl
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Genomics Core Facility, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Shaolei Lu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - David Silverberg
- Molecular Pathology Core Facility, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | | | - Zhijin Wu
- Department of Biostatistics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Lanlan Zhou
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Laboratory of Translational Oncology and Experimental Cancer Therapeutics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Brittany A. Borden
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | | | - Mark Dooner
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Lifespan Health System, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Benedito A. Carneiro
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Lifespan Health System, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Wafik S. El-Deiry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Laboratory of Translational Oncology and Experimental Cancer Therapeutics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- The Joint Program in Cancer Biology, Lifespan Health System, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Legorreta Cancer Center, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Pathobiology Graduate Program, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Lifespan Health System, Providence, RI 02903, USA
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Babkov D, Bezsonova E, Sirotenko V, Othman E, Klochkov V, Sosonyuk S, Lozinskaya N, Spasov A. 3-Arylidene-2-oxindoles as GSK3β inhibitors and anti-thrombotic agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2023; 87:129283. [PMID: 37054760 PMCID: PMC10088290 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2023.129283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Development of novel agents that prevent thrombotic events is an urgent task considering increasing incidence of cardiovascular diseases and coagulopathies that accompany cancer and COVID-19. Enzymatic assay identified novel GSK3β inhibitors in a series of 3-arylidene-2-oxindole derivatives. Considering the putative role of GSK3β in platelet activation, the most active compounds were evaluated for antiplatelet activity and antithrombotic activity. It was found that GSK3β inhibition by 2-oxindoles correlates with inhibition of platelet activation only for compounds 1b and 5a. Albeit, in vitro antiplatelet activity matched well with in vivo anti-thrombosis activity. The most active GSK3β inhibitor 5a exceeds antiplatelet activity of acetylsalicylic acid in vitro by 10.3 times and antithrombotic activity in vivo by 18.7 times (ED50 7.3 mg/kg). These results support the promising role of GSK3β inhibitors for development of novel antithrombotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Babkov
- Scientific Center for Innovative Drugs, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation; Department of Pharmacology & Bioinformatics, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation.
| | - Elena Bezsonova
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Viktor Sirotenko
- Department of Pharmacology & Bioinformatics, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation
| | - Elias Othman
- Department of Pharmacology & Bioinformatics, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation
| | - Vladlen Klochkov
- Department of Pharmacology & Bioinformatics, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation
| | - Sergey Sosonyuk
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Natalia Lozinskaya
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Alexander Spasov
- Scientific Center for Innovative Drugs, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation; Department of Pharmacology & Bioinformatics, Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd 400131, Russian Federation
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Candido MF, Medeiros M, Veronez LC, Bastos D, Oliveira KL, Pezuk JA, Valera ET, Brassesco MS. Drugging Hijacked Kinase Pathways in Pediatric Oncology: Opportunities and Current Scenario. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020664. [PMID: 36839989 PMCID: PMC9966033 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Childhood cancer is considered rare, corresponding to ~3% of all malignant neoplasms in the human population. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports a universal occurrence of more than 15 cases per 100,000 inhabitants around the globe, and despite improvements in diagnosis, treatment and supportive care, one child dies of cancer every 3 min. Consequently, more efficient, selective and affordable therapeutics are still needed in order to improve outcomes and avoid long-term sequelae. Alterations in kinases' functionality is a trademark of cancer and the concept of exploiting them as drug targets has burgeoned in academia and in the pharmaceutical industry of the 21st century. Consequently, an increasing plethora of inhibitors has emerged. In the present study, the expression patterns of a selected group of kinases (including tyrosine receptors, members of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK pathways, coordinators of cell cycle progression, and chromosome segregation) and their correlation with clinical outcomes in pediatric solid tumors were accessed through the R2: Genomics Analysis and Visualization Platform and by a thorough search of published literature. To further illustrate the importance of kinase dysregulation in the pathophysiology of pediatric cancer, we analyzed the vulnerability of different cancer cell lines against their inhibition through the Cancer Dependency Map portal, and performed a search for kinase-targeted compounds with approval and clinical applicability through the CanSAR knowledgebase. Finally, we provide a detailed literature review of a considerable set of small molecules that mitigate kinase activity under experimental testing and clinical trials for the treatment of pediatric tumors, while discuss critical challenges that must be overcome before translation into clinical options, including the absence of compounds designed specifically for childhood tumors which often show differential mutational burdens, intrinsic and acquired resistance, lack of selectivity and adverse effects on a growing organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Ferreira Candido
- Department of Cell Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Mariana Medeiros
- Regional Blood Center, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana Chain Veronez
- Department of Pediatrics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - David Bastos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Karla Laissa Oliveira
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Julia Alejandra Pezuk
- Departament of Biotechnology and Innovation, Anhanguera University of São Paulo, UNIAN/SP, São Paulo 04119-001, SP, Brazil
| | - Elvis Terci Valera
- Department of Pediatrics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - María Sol Brassesco
- Departament of Biotechnology and Innovation, Anhanguera University of São Paulo, UNIAN/SP, São Paulo 04119-001, SP, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-16-3315-9144; Fax: +55-16-3315-4886
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Chandel S, Singh R, Gautam A, Ravichandiran V. Screening of Azadirachta indica phytoconstituents as GSK-3β inhibitor and its implication in neuroblastoma: molecular docking, molecular dynamics, MM-PBSA binding energy, and in-vitro study. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:12827-12840. [PMID: 34569452 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1977705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3), a constitutively active serine/threonine kinase, primary regulator of various cellular activities varying from glycogen metabolism to cell proliferation and regulation. GSK-3β is associated with the pathogenesis of numerous human diseases, including cancer, metabolic disorder, and Alzheimer's disease. In this study, Azadirachta indica compounds were selected and further screened on the BOILED-Egg model. The compounds showing good GIT absorption were docked with the crystal structure of GSK-3β. The compounds with high docking score were submitted for the molecular dynamic simulation (MDS) and Molecular Mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann Surface Area (MM-PBSA). Based upon the MDS and MM-PBSA study, gedunin showed the highest binding energy throughout the MDS process. Gedunin was isolated from the Azadirachta indica, and its efficacy on GSK-3β inhibition was studied in the human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells. Gedunin induced apoptosis and anti-proliferative activity by arresting G2/M phase, as evident by cell-cycle analysis. From immunoblot study, gedunin significantly enhanced the expression of an inhibitory form of GSK-3β (p-GSK-3β Ser9) in concentration-dependent manner. Our findings demonstrate that gedunin may act as an effective GSK-3β inhibitor suggesting that this compound may be used for the management of neuroblastoma. Further preclinical and clinical investigation is desirable.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Chandel
- Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Rajveer Singh
- Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Anupam Gautam
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School "From Molecules to Organisms", Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Velayutham Ravichandiran
- Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
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Shaw G, Cavalcante L, Giles FJ, Taylor A. Elraglusib (9-ING-41), a selective small-molecule inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, reduces expression of immune checkpoint molecules PD-1, TIGIT and LAG-3 and enhances CD8+ T cell cytolytic killing of melanoma cells. J Hematol Oncol 2022; 15:134. [PMID: 36104795 PMCID: PMC9472445 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-022-01352-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase with multiple roles in tumour growth, cell invasion and metastasis. We have previously established GSK-3 as an upstream regulator of PD-1 gene expression in CD8 + T cells and demonstrated that GSK-3 inhibition is as effective as anti-PD-1 mAb blockade in controlling tumour growth. Elraglusib (9-ING-41) is a specific small-molecule inhibitor of GSK-3β with clinical activity in patients with advanced cancers, including a patient with refractory melanoma whose response provided the rationale for the current study. Methods The B16 melanoma mouse model was used to observe the effect of elraglusib on tumour growth either as a single agent or in combination (simultaneously and sequentially) with anti-PD-1 mAb treatment. B16 tumour cells were implanted in either the flank, brain or both locations, and Kaplan–Meier plots were used to depict survival and significance determined using log rank tests. Expression of the immune checkpoint molecules, TIGIT, LAG-3 and PD-1, was evaluated using flow cytometry alongside expression of the chemokine receptor, CXCR3. Further evaluation of PD-1 expression was determined through RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Results We demonstrated that elraglusib has a suppressive effect against melanoma as a single agent and enhanced anti-PD-1 therapy. There was a synergistic effect when elraglusib was used in combination with anti-PD-1 mAb, and an even greater effect when used as sequential therapy. Suppression of tumour growth was associated with a reduced expression of immune checkpoint molecules, PD-1, TIGIT and LAG-3 with upregulation of CXCR3 expression. Conclusions These data highlight the potential of elraglusib as an immune-modulatory agent and demonstrate the benefit of a sequential approach with immune checkpoint inhibition followed by GSK-3β inhibition in melanoma and provide a rationale for clinical investigation of elraglusib combined with immune checkpoint inhibitory molecules, including those targeting PD-1, TIGIT and LAG-3. This has several potential implications for current immunotherapy regimes, including possibly reducing the intensity of anti-PD-1 mAb treatment needed for response in patients receiving elraglusib, especially given the benign adverse event profile of elraglusib observed to date. Based on these data, a clinical study of elraglusib, an anti-PD-1 mAb and chemotherapy is ongoing (NCT NCT05239182). Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13045-022-01352-x.
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Gianferrara T, Cescon E, Grieco I, Spalluto G, Federico S. Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β Involvement in Neuroinflammation and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Curr Med Chem 2022; 29:4631-4697. [PMID: 35170406 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220216113517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND GSK-3β activity has been strictly related to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Alzheimer's disease is the most studied neurodegenerative disease, but GSK-3β seems to be involved in almost all neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, Huntington's disease and the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis. OBJECTIVE The aim of this review is to help researchers both working on this research topic or not to have a comprehensive overview on GSK-3β in the context of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. METHOD Literature has been searched using PubMed and SciFinder databases by inserting specific keywords. A total of more than 500 articles have been discussed. RESULTS First of all, the structure and regulation of the kinase were briefly discussed and then, specific GSK-3β implications in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases were illustrated also with the help of figures, to conclude with a comprehensive overview on the most important GSK-3β and multitarget inhibitors. For all discussed compounds, the structure and IC50 values at the target kinase have been reported. CONCLUSION GSK-3β is involved in several signaling pathways both in neurons as well as in glial cells and immune cells. The fine regulation and interconnection of all these pathways are at the base of the rationale use of GSK-3β inhibitors in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. In fact, some compounds are now under clinical trials. Despite this, pharmacodynamic and ADME/Tox profiles of the compounds were often not fully characterized and this is deleterious in such a complex system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Gianferrara
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cescon
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Ilenia Grieco
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Giampiero Spalluto
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Stephanie Federico
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
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Synthetic Heterocyclic Derivatives as Kinase Inhibitors Tested for the Treatment of Neuroblastoma. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26237069. [PMID: 34885651 PMCID: PMC8658969 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last few years, small molecules endowed with different heterocyclic scaffolds have been developed as kinase inhibitors. Some of them are being tested at preclinical or clinical levels for the potential treatment of neuroblastoma (NB). This disease is the most common extracranial solid tumor in childhood and is responsible for 10% to 15% of pediatric cancer deaths. Despite the availability of some treatments, including the use of very toxic cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents, high-risk (HR)-NB patients still have a poor prognosis and a survival rate below 50%. For these reasons, new pharmacological options are urgently needed. This review focuses on synthetic heterocyclic compounds published in the last five years, which showed at least some activity on this severe disease and act as kinase inhibitors. The specific mechanism of action, selectivity, and biological activity of these drug candidates are described, when established. Moreover, the most remarkable clinical trials are reported. Importantly, kinase inhibitors approved for other diseases have shown to be active and endowed with lower toxicity compared to conventional cytotoxic agents. The data collected in this article can be particularly useful for the researchers working in this area.
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Piazzi M, Bavelloni A, Cenni V, Faenza I, Blalock WL. Revisiting the Role of GSK3, A Modulator of Innate Immunity, in Idiopathic Inclusion Body Myositis. Cells 2021; 10:cells10113255. [PMID: 34831477 PMCID: PMC8625526 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic or sporadic inclusion body myositis (IBM) is the leading age-related (onset >50 years of age) autoimmune muscular pathology, resulting in significant debilitation in affected individuals. Once viewed as primarily a degenerative disorder, it is now evident that much like several other neuro-muscular degenerative disorders, IBM has a major autoinflammatory component resulting in chronic inflammation-induced muscle destruction. Thus, IBM is now considered primarily an inflammatory pathology. To date, there is no effective treatment for sporadic inclusion body myositis, and little is understood about the pathology at the molecular level, which would offer the best hopes of at least slowing down the degenerative process. Among the previously examined potential molecular players in IBM is glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3, whose role in promoting TAU phosphorylation and inclusion bodies in Alzheimer’s disease is well known. This review looks to re-examine the role of GSK3 in IBM, not strictly as a promoter of TAU and Abeta inclusions, but as a novel player in the innate immune system, discussing some of the recent roles discovered for this well-studied kinase in inflammatory-mediated pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Piazzi
- “Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza” Istituto di Genetica Molecolare-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IGM-CNR), 40136 Bologna, Italy; (M.P.); (V.C.)
- IRCCS, Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Alberto Bavelloni
- Laboratorio di Oncologia Sperimentale, Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Vittoria Cenni
- “Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza” Istituto di Genetica Molecolare-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IGM-CNR), 40136 Bologna, Italy; (M.P.); (V.C.)
- IRCCS, Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Irene Faenza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche and Neuromotorie, Università di Bologna, 40136 Bologna, Italy;
| | - William L. Blalock
- “Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza” Istituto di Genetica Molecolare-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IGM-CNR), 40136 Bologna, Italy; (M.P.); (V.C.)
- IRCCS, Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Correspondence:
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12
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Harrington CT, Sotillo E, Dang CV, Thomas-Tikhonenko A. Tilting MYC toward cancer cell death. Trends Cancer 2021; 7:982-994. [PMID: 34481764 PMCID: PMC8541926 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
MYC oncoprotein promotes cell proliferation and serves as the key driver in many human cancers; therefore, considerable effort has been expended to develop reliable pharmacological methods to suppress its expression or function. Despite impressive progress, MYC-targeting drugs have not reached the clinic. Recent advances suggest that within a limited expression range unique to each tumor, MYC oncoprotein can have a paradoxical, proapoptotic function. Here we introduce a counterintuitive idea that modestly and transiently elevating MYC levels could aid chemotherapy-induced apoptosis and thus benefit the patients as much, if not more than MYC inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen T Harrington
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Elena Sotillo
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Chi V Dang
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Molecular and Cellular Oncogenesis Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10017, USA
| | - Andrei Thomas-Tikhonenko
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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13
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Park R, Coveler AL, Cavalcante L, Saeed A. GSK-3β in Pancreatic Cancer: Spotlight on 9-ING-41, Its Therapeutic Potential and Immune Modulatory Properties. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10070610. [PMID: 34356465 PMCID: PMC8301062 DOI: 10.3390/biology10070610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta is a protein kinase implicated in the promotion and development of various cancers, including pancreatic cancer. In cell culture and animal studies, drugs targeting the inhibition of this protein show treatment potential in pancreatic cancer. Studies show targeting this protein for treatment may overcome resistance to conventional chemotherapy in pancreatic tumors. Early-stage clinical trials are currently studying small molecule inhibitors targeting glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta and interim results show favorable results. Recent studies also suggest that targeting this protein will create synergy with immunotherapy, such as checkpoint inhibitors. Future studies should aim to study new combination treatments involving glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta targeting drugs with chemotherapy and immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer. Abstract Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta is a ubiquitously and constitutively expressed molecule with pleiotropic function. It acts as a protooncogene in the development of several solid tumors including pancreatic cancer through its involvement in various cellular processes including cell proliferation, survival, invasion and metastasis, as well as autophagy. Furthermore, the level of aberrant glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta expression in the nucleus is inversely correlated with tumor differentiation and survival in both in vitro and in vivo models of pancreatic cancer. Small molecule inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta have demonstrated therapeutic potential in pre-clinical models and are currently being evaluated in early phase clinical trials involving pancreatic cancer patients with interim results showing favorable results. Moreover, recent studies support a rationale for the combination of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta inhibitors with chemotherapy and immunotherapy, warranting the evaluation of novel combination regimens in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Park
- Department of Medicine, MetroWest Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Framingham, MA 01702, USA;
| | - Andrew L. Coveler
- Department of Medicine, Division of Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109-1024, USA;
| | | | - Anwaar Saeed
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, Kansas University Cancer Center & Research Institute, Kansas, KS 66205, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-913-588-6077
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14
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He R, Du S, Lei T, Xie X, Wang Y. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β in tumorigenesis and oncotherapy (Review). Oncol Rep 2020; 44:2373-2385. [PMID: 33125126 PMCID: PMC7610307 DOI: 10.3892/or.2020.7817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK 3β), a multifunctional serine and threonine kinase, plays a critical role in a variety of cellular activities, including signaling transduction, protein and glycogen metabolism, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and apoptosis. Therefore, aberrant regulation of GSK 3β results in a broad range of human diseases, such as tumors, diabetes, inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. Accumulating evidence has suggested that GSK 3β is correlated with tumorigenesis and progression. However, GSK 3β is controversial due to its bifacial roles of tumor suppression and activation. In addition, overexpression of GSK 3β is involved in tumor growth, whereas it contributes to the cell sensitivity to chemotherapy. However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms of GSK 3β in tumorigenesis remain obscure and require further in‑depth investigation. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the roles of GSK 3β in tumorigenesis and oncotherapy, and focus on its potentials as an available target in oncotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui He
- Department of Union, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Suya Du
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Tiantian Lei
- Department of Pharmacy, Chongqing Health Center for Women and Children, Chongqing 400013, P.R. China
| | - Xiaofang Xie
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Yi Wang
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
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15
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Roca C, Campillo NE. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) inhibitors: a patent update (2016–2019). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2020; 30:863-872. [DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2020.1815706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Roca
- Structural and Chemical Biology, Centro De Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria E. Campillo
- Structural and Chemical Biology, Centro De Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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16
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Augello G, Emma MR, Cusimano A, Azzolina A, Montalto G, McCubrey JA, Cervello M. The Role of GSK-3 in Cancer Immunotherapy: GSK-3 Inhibitors as a New Frontier in Cancer Treatment. Cells 2020; 9:cells9061427. [PMID: 32526891 PMCID: PMC7348946 DOI: 10.3390/cells9061427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The serine/threonine kinase glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) was initially identified because of its key role in the regulation of glycogen synthesis. However, it is now well-established that GSK-3 performs critical functions in many cellular processes, such as apoptosis, tumor growth, cell invasion, and metastasis. Aberrant GSK-3 activity has been associated with many human diseases, including cancer, highlighting its potential therapeutic relevance as a target for anticancer therapy. Recently, newly emerging data have demonstrated the pivotal role of GSK-3 in the anticancer immune response. In the last few years, many GSK-3 inhibitors have been developed, and some are currently being tested in clinical trials. This review will discuss preclinical and initial clinical results with GSK-3β inhibitors, highlighting the potential importance of this target in cancer immunotherapy. As described in this review, GSK-3 inhibitors have been shown to have antitumor activity in a wide range of human cancer cells, and they may also contribute to promoting a more efficacious immune response against tumor target cells, thus showing a double therapeutic advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppa Augello
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
| | - Maria R. Emma
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
| | - Antonella Cusimano
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
| | - Antonina Azzolina
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
| | - Giuseppe Montalto
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - James A. McCubrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Melchiorre Cervello
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90144 Palermo, Italy; (G.A.); (M.R.E.); (A.C.); (A.A.); (G.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-091-6809-534
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17
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Targeting GSK3 and Associated Signaling Pathways Involved in Cancer. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051110. [PMID: 32365809 PMCID: PMC7290852 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine (S/T) protein kinase. Although GSK-3 originally was identified to have functions in regulation of glycogen synthase, it was subsequently determined to have roles in multiple normal biochemical processes as well as various disease conditions. GSK-3 is sometimes referred to as a moonlighting protein due to the multiple substrates and processes which it controls. Frequently, when GSK-3 phosphorylates proteins, they are targeted for degradation. GSK-3 is often considered a component of the PI3K/PTEN/AKT/GSK-3/mTORC1 pathway as GSK-3 is frequently phosphorylated by AKT which regulates its inactivation. AKT is often active in human cancer and hence, GSK-3 is often inactivated. Moreover, GSK-3 also interacts with WNT/β-catenin signaling and β-catenin and other proteins in this pathway are targets of GSK-3. GSK-3 can modify NF-κB activity which is often expressed at high levels in cancer cells. Multiple pharmaceutical companies developed small molecule inhibitors to suppress GSK-3 activity. In addition, various natural products will modify GSK-3 activity. This review will focus on the effects of small molecule inhibitors and natural products on GSK-3 activity and provide examples where these compounds were effective in suppressing cancer growth.
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18
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Ding L, Billadeau DD. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β: a novel therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2020; 24:417-426. [PMID: 32178549 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2020.1743681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer death in the United States with a single-digit 5-year survival rate despite advances in understanding the genetics and biology of the disease. Glycogen synthase kinase-3α (GSK-3α) and GSK-3β are serine/threonine kinases that localize to the cytoplasm, mitochondria and nucleus. Although they are highly homologous within their kinase domains and phosphorylate an overlapping set of target proteins, genetic studies have shown that GSK-3β regulates the activity of several proteins that promote neoplastic transformation. Significantly, GSK-3β is progressively overexpressed during PDAC development where it participates in tumor progression, survival and chemoresistance. Thus, GSK-3β has become an attractive target for treating PDAC.Areas covered: This review summarizes the mechanisms regulating GSK-3β activity, including upstream translational and post-translational regulation, as well as the downstream targets and their functions in PDAC cell growth, metastasis and chemoresistance.Expert opinion: The activity of GSK-3 kinases are considered cell- and context-specific. In PDAC, oncogenic KRas drives the transcriptional expression of the GSK-3β gene, which has been shown to regulate cancer cell proliferation and survival, as well as resistance to chemotherapy. Thus, the combination of GSK-3 inhibitors with chemotherapeutic drugs could be a promising strategy for PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ding
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Daniel D Billadeau
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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19
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Comparison of 2D and 3D cell cultures of colorectal adenocarcinoma as models for drug screening. Russ Chem Bull 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-019-2716-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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20
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Kuroki H, Anraku T, Kazama A, Bilim V, Tasaki M, Schmitt D, Mazar AP, Giles FJ, Ugolkov A, Tomita Y. 9-ING-41, a small molecule inhibitor of GSK-3beta, potentiates the effects of anticancer therapeutics in bladder cancer. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19977. [PMID: 31882719 PMCID: PMC6934761 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56461-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β), a serine/threonine kinase, has been identified as a potential therapeutic target in human bladder cancer. In the present study, we investigated the antitumor effect of a small molecule GSK-3β inhibitor, 9-ING-41, currently in clinical studies in patients with advanced cancer, in bladder cancer cell lines. We found that treatment with 9-ING-41 leads to cell cycle arrest, autophagy and apoptosis in bladder cancer cells. The autophagy inhibitor chloroquine potentiated the antitumor effects of 9-ING-41 when tested in combination studies. Our findings also demonstrate that 9-ING-41 enhanced the growth inhibitory effects of gemcitabine or cisplatin when used in combination in bladder cancer cells. Finally, we found that 9-ING-41 sensitized bladder cancer cells to the cytotoxic effects of human immune effector cells. Our results provide a rationale for the inclusion of patients with advanced bladder cancer in clinical studies of 9-ING-41.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroo Kuroki
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Anraku
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Akira Kazama
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Vladimir Bilim
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Kameda Daiichi Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Masayuki Tasaki
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Yoshihiko Tomita
- Department of Urology, Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan.
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21
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Anraku T, Kuroki H, Kazama A, Bilim V, Tasaki M, Schmitt D, Mazar A, Giles FJ, Ugolkov A, Tomita Y. Clinically relevant GSK‑3β inhibitor 9‑ING‑41 is active as a single agent and in combination with other antitumor therapies in human renal cancer. Int J Mol Med 2019; 45:315-323. [PMID: 31894292 PMCID: PMC6984786 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2019.4427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3), a serine/threonine kinase, is involved in a broad range of pathological processes including cancer. GSK-3 has two isoforms, GSK-3α and GSK-3β, and GSK-3β has been recognized as a therapeutic target for the development of new anticancer drugs. The present study aimed to investigate the antitumor effects of 9-ING-41, which is a maleimide-based ATP-competitive small molecule GSK-3β inhibitor active in patients with advanced cancer. In renal cancer cell lines, treatment with 9-ING-41 alone induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and autophagy inhibitors increased the antitumor effects of 9-ING-41 when used in combination. Treatment with 9-ING-41 potentiated the antitumor effects of targeted therapeutics and increased the cytotoxic effects of cytokine-activated immune cells on renal cancer cell lines. These results provided a compelling rationale for the inclusion of patients with renal cancer in studies of 9-ING-41, both as a single agent and in combination with current standard therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Anraku
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
| | - Hiroo Kuroki
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
| | - Akira Kazama
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
| | - Vladimir Bilim
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
| | - Masaaki Tasaki
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Yoshihiko Tomita
- Department of Urology, Division of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951‑8510, Japan
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22
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Jeffers A, Qin W, Owens S, Koenig KB, Komatsu S, Giles FJ, Schmitt DM, Idell S, Tucker TA. Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β Inhibition with 9-ING-41 Attenuates the Progression of Pulmonary Fibrosis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18925. [PMID: 31831767 PMCID: PMC6908609 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55176-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive interstitial lung disease with a median survival of 3 years after diagnosis. Although the etiology of IPF is unknown, it is characterized by extensive alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis and proliferation of myofibroblasts in the lungs. While the origins of these myofibroblast appear to be diverse, fibroblast differentiation contributes to expansion of myofibroblasts and to disease progression. We found that agents that contribute to neomatrix formation and remodeling in pulmonary fibrosis (PF); TGF-β, Factor Xa, thrombin, plasmin and uPA all induced fibroblast/myofibroblast differentiation. These same mediators enhanced GSK-3β activation via phosphorylation of tyrosine-216 (p-Y216). Inhibition of GSK-3β signaling with the novel inhibitor 9-ING-41 blocked the induction of myofibroblast markers; α-SMA and Col-1 and reduced morphological changes of myofibroblast differentiation. In in vivo studies, the progression of TGF-β and bleomycin mediated PF was significantly attenuated by 9-ING-41 administered at 7 and 14 days respectively after the establishment of injury. Specifically, 9-ING-41 treatment significantly improved lung function (compliance and lung volumes; p < 0.05) of TGF-β adenovirus treated mice compared to controls. Similar results were found in mice with bleomycin-induced PF. These studies clearly show that activation of the GSK-3β signaling pathway is critical for the induction of myofibroblast differentiation in lung fibroblasts ex vivo and pulmonary fibrosis in vivo. The results offer a strong premise supporting the continued investigation of the GSK-3β signaling pathway in the control of fibroblast-myofibroblast differentiation and fibrosing lung injury. These data provide a strong rationale for extension of clinical trials of 9-ING-41 to patients with IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Jeffers
- The Texas Lung Injury Institute, Tyler, TX, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Wenyi Qin
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Shuzi Owens
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Kathleen B Koenig
- The Texas Lung Injury Institute, Tyler, TX, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Satoshi Komatsu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Steven Idell
- The Texas Lung Injury Institute, Tyler, TX, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Torry A Tucker
- The Texas Lung Injury Institute, Tyler, TX, USA. .,Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA.
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Heider F, Pantsar T, Kudolo M, Ansideri F, De Simone A, Pruccoli L, Schneider T, Goettert MI, Tarozzi A, Andrisano V, Laufer SA, Koch P. Pyridinylimidazoles as GSK3β Inhibitors: The Impact of Tautomerism on Compound Activity via Water Networks. ACS Med Chem Lett 2019; 10:1407-1414. [PMID: 31620226 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) is involved in many pathological conditions and represents an attractive drug target. We previously reported dual GSK3β/p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors and identified N-(4-(4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)pyridin-2-yl)cyclopropanecarboxamide (1) as a potent dual inhibitor of both target kinases. In this study, we aimed to design selective GSK3β inhibitors based on our pyridinylimidazole scaffold. Our efforts resulted in several novel and potent GSK3β inhibitors with IC50 values in the low nanomolar range. 5-(2-(Cyclopropanecarboxamido)pyridin-4-yl)-4-cyclopropyl-1H-imidazole-2-carboxamide (6g) displayed very good kinase selectivity as well as metabolical stability and inhibited GSK3β activity in neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. Interestingly, we observed the importance of the 2-methylimidazole's tautomeric state for the compound activity. Finally, we reveal how this crucial tautomerism effect is surmounted by imidazole-2-carboxamides, which are able to stabilize the binding via enhanced water network interactions, regardless of their tautomeric state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Heider
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tatu Pantsar
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. BOX 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Straße 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mark Kudolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Francesco Ansideri
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Angela De Simone
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto, 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Letizia Pruccoli
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto, 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Taiane Schneider
- Cell Culture Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, RS 95900-00, Brazil
| | - Marcia Inês Goettert
- Cell Culture Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, RS 95900-00, Brazil
| | - Andrea Tarozzi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto, 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Vincenza Andrisano
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto, 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Stefan A. Laufer
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pierre Koch
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry II, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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24
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Ding L, Madamsetty VS, Kiers S, Alekhina O, Ugolkov A, Dube J, Zhang Y, Zhang JS, Wang E, Dutta SK, Schmitt DM, Giles FJ, Kozikowski AP, Mazar AP, Mukhopadhyay D, Billadeau DD. Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Inhibition Sensitizes Pancreatic Cancer Cells to Chemotherapy by Abrogating the TopBP1/ATR-Mediated DNA Damage Response. Clin Cancer Res 2019; 25:6452-6462. [PMID: 31533931 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-19-0799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a predominantly fatal common malignancy with inadequate treatment options. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) is an emerging target in human malignancies including PDAC.Experimental Design: Pancreatic cancer cell lines and patient-derived xenografts were treated with a novel GSK-3 inhibitor 9-ING-41 alone or in combination with chemotherapy. Activation of the DNA damage response pathway and S-phase arrest induced by gemcitabine were assessed in pancreatic tumor cells with pharmacologic inhibition or siRNA depletion of GSK-3 kinases by immunoblotting, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence. RESULTS 9-ING-41 treatment significantly increased pancreatic tumor cell killing when combined with chemotherapy. Inhibition of GSK-3 by 9-ING-41 prevented gemcitabine-induced S-phase arrest suggesting an impact on the ATR-mediated DNA damage response. Both 9-ING-41 and siRNA depletion of GSK-3 kinases impaired the activation of ATR leading to the phosphorylation and activation of Chk1. Mechanistically, depletion or knockdown of GSK-3 kinases resulted in the degradation of the ATR-interacting protein TopBP1, thus limiting the activation of ATR in response to single-strand DNA damage. CONCLUSIONS These data identify a previously unknown role for GSK-3 kinases in the regulation of the TopBP1/ATR/Chk1 DNA damage response pathway. The data also support the inclusion of patients with PDAC in clinical studies of 9-ING-41 alone and in combination with gemcitabine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ding
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Vijay S Madamsetty
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Spencer Kiers
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Olga Alekhina
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | | | - John Dube
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Yu Zhang
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Jin-San Zhang
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.,Center for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Institute of Life Science, Wenzhou University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Enfeng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Shamit K Dutta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Daniel D Billadeau
- The Division of Oncology Research, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.
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25
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Sahin I, Eturi A, De Souza A, Pamarthy S, Tavora F, Giles FJ, Carneiro BA. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta inhibitors as novel cancer treatments and modulators of antitumor immune responses. Cancer Biol Ther 2019; 20:1047-1056. [PMID: 30975030 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2019.1595283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As a kinase at the crossroads of numerous metabolic and cell growth signaling pathways, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) is a highly desirable therapeutic target in cancer. Despite its involvement in pathways associated with the pathogenesis of several malignancies, no selective GSK-3β inhibitor has been approved for the treatment of cancer. The regulatory role of GSK-3β in apoptosis, cell cycle, DNA repair, tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis reflects the therapeutic relevance of this target and provides the rationale for drug combinations. Emerging data on GSK-3β as a mediator of anticancer immune response also highlight the potential clinical applications of novel selective GSK-3β inhibitors that are entering clinical studies. This manuscript reviews the preclinical and early clinical results with GSK-3β inhibitors and delineates the developmental therapeutics landscape for this potentially important target in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilyas Sahin
- a Lifespan Cancer Institute, Division of Hematology/Oncology , The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
| | - Aditya Eturi
- b Department of Medicine , The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
| | - Andre De Souza
- a Lifespan Cancer Institute, Division of Hematology/Oncology , The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
| | - Sahithi Pamarthy
- c Atrin Pharmaceuticals , Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center , Doylestown , PA , USA
| | - Fabio Tavora
- d Argos Laboratory/Messejana Heart and Lung Hospital , Fortaleza , Brazil
| | - Francis J Giles
- e Developmental Therapeutics Consortium , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Benedito A Carneiro
- a Lifespan Cancer Institute, Division of Hematology/Oncology , The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
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26
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Ugolkov AV, Matsangou M, Taxter TJ, O'Halloran TV, Cryns VL, Giles FJ, Mazar AP. Aberrant expression of glycogen synthase kinase-3β in human breast and head and neck cancer. Oncol Lett 2018; 16:6437-6444. [PMID: 30405781 PMCID: PMC6202539 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.9483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a serine/threonine protein kinase, has been implicated as a potential therapeutic target in human cancer. The objective of the present study was to evaluate aberrant expression of GSK-3β as a potential biomarker in human breast and head and neck cancers. Nuclear/cytosolic fractionation, immunoblotting and immunohistochemical staining was used to study the expression of GSK-3β in human breast and head and neck cancer. Aberrant nuclear accumulation of GSK-3β in five human breast cancer cell lines was demonstrated and in 89/128 (70%) human breast carcinomas, whereas no detectable expression of GSK-3β was found in benign breast tissue. Nuclear GSK-3β expression was associated with HER-2 positive tumors (P=0.02) and non-triple negative breast carcinomas (P=0.0001), although nuclear GSK-3β was observed in some samples across all breast cancer subtypes. Aberrant nuclear expression of GSK-3β was found in 11/15 (73%) squamous cell head and neck carcinomas, whereas weak or no detectable expression of GSK-3β was found in benign salivary gland and other benign head and neck tissues. These results support the hypothesis that aberrant nuclear GSK-3β may represent a potential target for the clinical treatment of human breast and squamous cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V Ugolkov
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Maria Matsangou
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Timothy J Taxter
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Thomas V O'Halloran
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.,Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Vincent L Cryns
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53726, USA
| | - Francis J Giles
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Andrew P Mazar
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.,Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Monopar Therapeutics, Inc., Wilmette, IL 60091, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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