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Vats A, Trejo-Cerro O, Thomas M, Banks L. Human papillomavirus E6 and E7: What remains? Tumour Virus Res 2021; 11:200213. [PMID: 33716206 PMCID: PMC7972986 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvr.2021.200213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research on the human papillomavirus oncogenes, E6 and E7, have given us huge amounts of data on their expression, functions and structures. We know much about the very many cellular proteins and pathways that they influence in one way or another. However, much of this information is quite discrete, referring to one activity examined under one condition. It is now time to join the dots to try to understand a larger picture: how, where and when do all these interactions occur... and why? Examining these questions will also show how many of the yet obscure cellular processes work together for cellular and tissue homeostasis in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arushi Vats
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Oscar Trejo-Cerro
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Miranda Thomas
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy.
| | - Lawrence Banks
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
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Lourenço de Freitas N, Deberaldini MG, Gomes D, Pavan AR, Sousa Â, Dos Santos JL, Soares CP. Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors as Therapeutic Interventions on Cervical Cancer Induced by Human Papillomavirus. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:592868. [PMID: 33634093 PMCID: PMC7901962 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.592868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of epigenetic modifications on the carcinogenesis process has received a lot of attention in the last years. Among those, histone acetylation is a process regulated by histone deacetylases (HDAC) and histone acetyltransferases (HAT), and it plays an important role in epigenetic regulation, allowing the control of the gene expression. HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) induce cancer cell cycle arrest, differentiation, and cell death and reduce angiogenesis and other cellular events. Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are small, non-enveloped double-stranded DNA viruses. They are major human carcinogens, being intricately linked to the development of cancer in 4.5% of the patients diagnosed with cancer worldwide. Long-term infection of high-risk (HR) HPV types, mainly HPV16 and HPV18, is one of the major risk factors responsible for promoting cervical cancer development. In vitro and in vivo assays have demonstrated that HDACi could be a promising therapy to HPV-related cervical cancer. Regardless of some controversial studies, the therapy with HDACi could target several cellular targets which HR-HPV oncoproteins could be able to deregulate. This review article describes the role of HDACi as a possible intervention in cervical cancer treatment induced by HPV, highlighting the main advances reached in the last years and providing insights for further investigations regarding those agents against cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália Lourenço de Freitas
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Maria Gabriela Deberaldini
- Drugs and Medicines Department, School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Diana Gomes
- CICS-UBI – Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Aline Renata Pavan
- Drugs and Medicines Department, School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Ângela Sousa
- CICS-UBI – Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Jean Leandro Dos Santos
- Drugs and Medicines Department, School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Christiane P. Soares
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
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Montalvo-Casimiro M, González-Barrios R, Meraz-Rodriguez MA, Juárez-González VT, Arriaga-Canon C, Herrera LA. Epidrug Repurposing: Discovering New Faces of Old Acquaintances in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol 2020; 10:605386. [PMID: 33312959 PMCID: PMC7708379 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.605386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene mutations are strongly associated with tumor progression and are well known in cancer development. However, recently discovered epigenetic alterations have shown the potential to greatly influence tumoral response to therapy regimens. Such epigenetic alterations have proven to be dynamic, and thus could be restored. Due to their reversible nature, the promising opportunity to improve chemotherapy response using epigenetic therapy has arisen. Beyond helping to understand the biology of the disease, the use of modern clinical epigenetics is being incorporated into the management of the cancer patient. Potential epidrug candidates can be found through a process known as drug repositioning or repurposing, a promising strategy for the discovery of novel potential targets in already approved drugs. At present, novel epidrug candidates have been identified in preclinical studies and some others are currently being tested in clinical trials, ready to be repositioned. This epidrug repurposing could circumvent the classic paradigm where the main focus is the development of agents with one indication only, while giving patients lower cost therapies and a novel precision medical approach to optimize treatment efficacy and reduce toxicity. This review focuses on the main approved epidrugs, and their druggable targets, that are currently being used in cancer therapy. Also, we highlight the importance of epidrug repurposing by the rediscovery of known chemical entities that may enhance epigenetic therapy in cancer, contributing to the development of precision medicine in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Montalvo-Casimiro
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo González-Barrios
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Marco Antonio Meraz-Rodriguez
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Cristian Arriaga-Canon
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Luis A. Herrera
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Mexico City, Mexico
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Moreira-Silva F, Camilo V, Gaspar V, Mano JF, Henrique R, Jerónimo C. Repurposing Old Drugs into New Epigenetic Inhibitors: Promising Candidates for Cancer Treatment? Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E410. [PMID: 32365701 PMCID: PMC7284583 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12050410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic alterations, as a cancer hallmark, are associated with cancer initiation, progression and aggressiveness. Considering, however, that these alterations are reversible, drugs that target epigenetic machinery may have an inhibitory effect upon cancer treatment. The traditional drug discovery pathway is time-consuming and expensive, and thus, new and more effective strategies are required. Drug Repurposing (DR) comprises the discovery of a new medical indication for a drug that is approved for another indication, which has been recalled, that was not accepted or failed to prove efficacy. DR presents several advantages, mainly reduced resources, absence of the initial target discovery process and the reduced time necessary for the drug to be commercially available. There are numerous old drugs that are under study as repurposed epigenetic inhibitors which have demonstrated promising results in in vitro tumor models. Herein, we summarize the DR process and explore several repurposed drugs with different epigenetic targets that constitute promising candidates for cancer treatment, highlighting their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Moreira-Silva
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, IPO Porto Research Center (CI-IPOP), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; (F.M.-S.); (V.C.)
| | - Vânia Camilo
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, IPO Porto Research Center (CI-IPOP), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; (F.M.-S.); (V.C.)
| | - Vítor Gaspar
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (V.G.); (J.F.M.)
| | - João F. Mano
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (V.G.); (J.F.M.)
| | - Rui Henrique
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, IPO Porto Research Center (CI-IPOP) and Department of Pathology, Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Carmen Jerónimo
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, IPO Porto Research Center (CI-IPOP), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; (F.M.-S.); (V.C.)
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de Campos RP, Schultz IC, de Andrade Mello P, Davies S, Gasparin MS, Bertoni APS, Buffon A, Wink MR. Cervical cancer stem-like cells: systematic review and identification of reference genes for gene expression. Cell Biol Int 2018; 42:139-152. [PMID: 28949053 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer affecting women worldwide. Among many factors, the presence of cancer stem cells, a subpopulation of cells inside the tumor, has been associated with a worse prognosis. Considering the importance of gene expression studies to understand the biology of cervical cancer stem cells (CCSC), this work identifies stable reference genes for cervical cancer cell lines SiHa, HeLa, and ME180 as well as their respective cancer stem-like cells. A literature review was performed to identify validated reference genes currently used to normalize RT-qPCR data in cervical cancer cell lines. Then, cell lines were cultured in regular monolayer or in a condition that favors tumor sphere formation. RT-qPCR was performed using five reference genes: ACTB, B2M, GAPDH, HPRT1, and TBP. Stability was assessed to validate the selected genes as suitable reference genes. The evaluation validated B2M, GAPDH, HPRT1, and TBP in these experimental conditions. Among them, GAPDH and TBP presented the lowest variability according to the analysis by Normfinder, Bestkeeper, and ΔCq methods, being therefore the most adequate genes to normalize the combination of all samples. These results suggest that B2M, GAPDH, HPRT1, and TBP are suitable reference genes to normalize RT-qPCR data of established cervical cancer cell lines SiHa, HeLa, and ME180 as well as their derived cancer stem-like cells. Indeed, GAPDH and TBP seem to be the most convenient choices for studying gene expression in these cells in monolayers or spheres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael P de Campos
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Iago C Schultz
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Paola de Andrade Mello
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Laboratório de Análises Bioquímicas e Citológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90610-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Samuel Davies
- Laboratório de Análises Bioquímicas e Citológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90610-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Manuela S Gasparin
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Laboratório de Análises Bioquímicas e Citológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90610-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ana P S Bertoni
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Andréia Buffon
- Laboratório de Análises Bioquímicas e Citológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90610-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Márcia R Wink
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre 90050-170, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Liu T, Zhao L, Hou H, Ding L, Chen W, Li X. Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 suppresses ovarian cancer migration via hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha and nuclear factor-kappa B signals. Tumour Biol 2017; 39:1010428317692225. [PMID: 28459376 DOI: 10.1177/1010428317692225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 is believed to play a prominent role in the survival and developing progress of cancers. As a result, inhibiting α subunit of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 represents an attractive strategy against tumor. Although hypoxia-inducible factor 1α is a hypoxia-regulated subunit, increasing evidence indicates that hypoxia-inducible factor 1α could stable expression under normoxic conditions, regulated by non-hypoxia-mediated mechanisms. However, there are few strategies to target hypoxia-inducible factor 1α under normoxic conditions. Here, we report that ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3, one of the main active ingredients in red ginseng, restrains hypoxia-inducible factor 1α expression under normal oxygen levels in human ovarian cancer cell lines, SKOV3 and 3AO, which leads to potently inhibits migration of ovarian cancer in vitro and in vivo. 20(S)-Rg3 could decrease the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α by upregulation of prolyl hydroxylase domain protein 1 to promoting hypoxia-inducible factor 1α ubiquitin-proteasome degradation under normal oxygen levels. Furthermore, 20(S)-Rg3 could attenuate the expression of nuclear factor-κ B, which may be another possible mechanism for 20(S)-Rg3 to block ovarian cancer migration. Taken together, our study suggests that 20(S)-Rg3 is a strong inhibitor of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, which may provide a novel agent for future treatments for ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Liu
- 1 Department of Radiology, the First Affiliated hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,2 Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, the First Affiliated hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Le Zhao
- 3 Center for Translational Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Huilian Hou
- 4 Department of Pathology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Lu Ding
- 5 Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wei Chen
- 6 Center for Laboratory Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xu Li
- 3 Center for Translational Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
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Chen N, Huang CH, Chen BX, Liu H, Wang WM, Gul Y, Wang HL. Alternative splicing transcription of Megalobrama amblycephala HIF prolyl hydroxylase PHD3 and up-regulation of PHD3 by HIF-1α. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 469:737-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Expression and DNA methylation levels of prolyl hydroxylases PHD1, PHD2, PHD3 and asparaginyl hydroxylase FIH in colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer 2013; 13:526. [PMID: 24195777 PMCID: PMC3828400 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-13-526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common and comprehensively studied malignancies. Hypoxic conditions during formation of CRC may support the development of more aggressive cancers. Hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), a major player in cancerous tissue adaptation to hypoxia, is negatively regulated by the family of prolyl hydroxylase enzymes (PHD1, PHD2, PHD3) and asparaginyl hydroxylase, called factor inhibiting HIF (FIH). Methods PHD1, PHD2, PHD3 and FIH gene expression was evaluated using quantitative RT-PCR and western blotting in primary colonic adenocarcinoma and adjacent histopathologically unchanged colonic mucosa from patients who underwent radical surgical resection of the colon (n = 90), and the same methods were used for assessment of PHD3 gene expression in HCT116 and DLD-1 CRC cell lines. DNA methylation levels of the CpG island in the promoter regulatory region of PHD1, PHD2, PHD3 and FIH were assessed using bisulfite DNA sequencing and high resolution melting analysis (HRM) for patients and HRM analysis for CRC cell lines. Results We found significantly lower levels of PHD1, PHD2 and PHD3 transcripts (p = 0.00026; p < 0.00001; p < 0.00001) and proteins (p = 0.004164; p = 0.0071; p < 0.00001) in primary cancerous than in histopathologically unchanged tissues. Despite this, we did not observe statistically significant differences in FIH transcript levels between cancerous and histopathologically unchanged colorectal tissue, but we found a significantly increased level of FIH protein in CRC (p = 0.0169). The reduced PHD3 expression was correlated with significantly increased DNA methylation in the CpG island of the PHD3 promoter regulatory region (p < 0.0001). We did not observe DNA methylation in the CpG island of the PHD1, PHD2 or FIH promoter in cancerous and histopathologically unchanged colorectal tissue. We also showed that 5-Aza-2’-deoxycytidine induced DNA demethylation leading to increased PHD3 transcript and protein level in HCT116 cells. Conclusion We demonstrated that reduced PHD3 expression in cancerous tissue was accompanied by methylation of the CpG rich region located within the first exon and intron of the PHD3 gene. The diminished expression of PHD1 and PHD2 and elevated level of FIH protein in cancerous tissue compared to histopathologically unchanged colonic mucosa was not associated with DNA methylation within the CpG islands of the PHD1, PHD2 and FIH genes.
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Anti-inflammatory properties of histone deacetylase inhibitors: a mechanistic study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 72:347-53; discussion 353-4. [PMID: 22327976 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0b013e318243d8b2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have demonstrated that postshock administration of suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, can significantly improve early survival in a highly lethal model of hemorrhagic shock. As the primary insult in hemorrhagic shock is cellular hypoxia, and transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) controls proinflammatory gene expression in macrophages, we hypothesized that SAHA would attenuate the HIF-1α associated proinflammatory pathway in a hypoxic macrophage model. METHODS Mouse macrophages were exposed to hypoxic conditions (0.5% O2, 10% CO2, and 89.5% N2) at 37°C in the presence or absence of SAHA (10 μmol/L). The cells and culture medium were harvested at 1 hour, 4 hours, and 8 hours. Sham (no hypoxia, no SAHA) served as a control. Western blots were performed to assess protein levels of prolyl hydroxylase 2 (PHD2), HIF-1α, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the cells. Colorimetric biochemical assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were used to analyze the release of nitric oxide (NO) and secretion of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), respectively, in the cell culture medium. RESULTS Hypoxia significantly increased cellular level of HIF-1α (1 hour and 4 hours), gene transcription of iNOS (4 hours and 8 hours), iNOS protein (8 hours), NO production (8 hours), and TNF-α secretion (4 hours and 8 hours). SAHA treatment attenuated all of the above hypoxia-induced alterations in the macrophages. In addition, SAHA treatment significantly increased cellular level of PHD2, one of the upstream negative regulators of HIF-1α, at 1 hour. CONCLUSIONS Treatment with SAHA attenuates hypoxia-HIF-1α-inflammatory pathway in macrophages and suppresses hypoxia-induced release of proinflammatory NO and TNF-α. SAHA also causes an early increase in cellular PHD2, which provides, at least in part, a new explanation for the decrease in the HIF-1α protein levels.
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Kamphues C, Wittschieber D, Klauschen F, Kasajima A, Dietel M, Schmidt SC, Glanemann M, Bahra M, Neuhaus P, Weichert W, Stenzinger A. Prolyl Hydroxylase Domain 2 Protein Is a Strong Prognostic Marker in Human Gastric Cancer. Pathobiology 2012; 79:11-7. [DOI: 10.1159/000330170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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