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Reyes-Hernández OD, Figueroa-González G, Quintas-Granados LI, Gutiérrez-Ruíz SC, Hernández-Parra H, Romero-Montero A, Del Prado-Audelo ML, Bernal-Chavez SA, Cortés H, Peña-Corona SI, Kiyekbayeva L, Ateşşahin DA, Goloshvili T, Leyva-Gómez G, Sharifi-Rad J. 3,3'-Diindolylmethane and indole-3-carbinol: potential therapeutic molecules for cancer chemoprevention and treatment via regulating cellular signaling pathways. Cancer Cell Int 2023; 23:180. [PMID: 37633886 PMCID: PMC10464192 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-023-03031-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Dietary compounds in cancer prevention have gained significant consideration as a viable method. Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) are heterocyclic and bioactive chemicals found in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, and brussels sprouts. They are synthesized after glycolysis from the glucosinolate structure. Clinical and preclinical trials have evaluated the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic, effectiveness, antioxidant, cancer-preventing (cervical dysplasia, prostate cancer, breast cancer), and anti-tumor activities of I3C and DIM involved with polyphenolic derivatives created in the digestion showing promising results. However, the exact mechanism by which they exert anti-cancer and apoptosis-inducing properties has yet to be entirely understood. Via this study, we update the existing knowledge of the state of anti-cancer investigation concerning I3C and DIM chemicals. We have also summarized; (i) the recent advancements in the use of I3C/DIM as therapeutic molecules since they represent potentially appealing anti-cancer agents, (ii) the available literature on the I3C and DIM characterization, and the challenges related to pharmacologic properties such as low solubility, and poor bioavailability, (iii) the synthesis and semi-synthetic derivatives, (iv) the mechanism of anti-tumor action in vitro/in vivo, (v) the action in cellular signaling pathways related to the regulation of apoptosis and anoikis as well as the cell cycle progression and cell proliferation such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and PPARγ agonists; SR13668, Akt inhibitor, cyclins regulation, ER-dependent-independent pathways, and their current medical applications, to recognize research opportunities to potentially use these compounds instead chemotherapeutic synthetic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octavio Daniel Reyes-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular del Cáncer, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, UMIEZ, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 09230, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Figueroa-González
- Laboratorio de Farmacogenética, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, UMIEZ, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 09230, Mexico
| | | | | | - Hector Hernández-Parra
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - Alejandra Romero-Montero
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - María Luisa Del Prado-Audelo
- Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Campus Ciudad de México, C. Puente 222, Ciudad de México, 14380, Mexico
| | - Sergio Alberto Bernal-Chavez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - Hernán Cortés
- Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Sheila I Peña-Corona
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - Lashyn Kiyekbayeva
- Pharmaceutical School, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
- Faculties of Pharmacy, Public Health and Nursing, Kazakh-Russian Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Dilek Arslan Ateşşahin
- Baskil Vocational School, Department of Plant and Animal Production, Fırat University, Elazıg, 23100, Turkey
| | - Tamar Goloshvili
- Department of Plant Physiology and Genetic Resources, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, 0162, Georgia
| | - Gerardo Leyva-Gómez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico.
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Shilpa G, Lakshmi S, Jamsheena V, Lankalapalli RS, Prakash V, Sadasivam A, Priya S. Studies on the mode of action of synthetic diindolylmethane derivatives against triple negative breast cancer cells. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2022; 131:224-240. [PMID: 35750657 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Diindolylmethane (DIM) is a metabolic product of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), the major phytochemicals present in cruciferous vegetables, which can modulate multiple signalling pathways in cancer. The present study deals with the mechanism of action of two synthetic biaryl conjugates of DIM in triple negative breast cancer cells. Out of twelve DIM derivatives tested, two compounds, DIM-1 and DIM-4, exhibit cytotoxicity with GI50 values of 9.83±0.2195 μM and 8.726±0.5234 μM, respectively, in 2D culture. In 3D culture, DIM-1 and DIM-4 show GI50 values of 24.000±0.7240 μM and 19.230±0.3754 μM, respectively. The non-toxic nature of the compounds was also established by the toxicity studies using the zebrafish model system. The two compounds induced apoptosis and anoikis in the cancer cells, which was confirmed by morphological analysis, nuclear fragmentation, membrane integrity assay, caspase activity measurements, and modulation of pro/anti-apoptotic proteins. The compounds inhibited cell migration and MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities indicating their anti-metastatic property. They also reduced the expression of active Ras, phosphorylated forms of PI3K, Akt and mTOR. Immunofluorescence studies revealed the reduced expression of EGFR and pEGFR in treated cells. To conclude, DIM-1 and DIM-4 induced anti-breast cancer effects by blocking EGF receptor and subsequently inhibiting Ras-mediated PI3K-Akt-mTOR signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesan Shilpa
- Biochemistry Section, Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Sreerenjini Lakshmi
- Biochemistry Section, Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Vellekkatt Jamsheena
- Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Ravi Shankar Lankalapalli
- Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Ved Prakash
- Ecotoxicology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Anbumani Sadasivam
- Ecotoxicology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
| | - Sulochana Priya
- Biochemistry Section, Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
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3
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Contribution of p38 MAPK Pathway to Norcantharidin-Induced Programmed Cell Death in Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20143487. [PMID: 31315217 PMCID: PMC6678691 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20143487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Norcantharidin (NCTD), a demethylated analog of cantharidin isolated from blister beetles, has been used as a promising anticancer agent; however, the underlying function of NCTD against human oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has not been fully understood. Here, this study was aimed to investigate the apoptotic effect and molecular targets of NCTD in human OSCC in vitro and in vivo. The anticancer effects of NCTD and its related molecular mechanisms were evaluated by trypan blue exclusion assay, live/dead assay, western blotting, 4-6-Diamidino-2-Phenylindole (DAPI) staining, flow cytometric analysis, Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase dUTP Nick end Labeling (TUNEL) assay, and immunohistochemistry. NCTD significantly inhibited cell growth and increased the number of dead cells in HSC-3 and HN22 cell lines. It induced the following apoptotic phenomena: (1) the cleavages of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and casepase-3; (2) increase in apoptotic morphological changes (nuclear condensation and fragmentation); (3) increase in annexin V-positive cells or sub-G1 population of cells. NCTD significantly activated the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway but inactivated the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 pathway. A p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB203580) partially attenuated NCTD-induced programmed cell death (apoptosis) in both cell lines, whereas ectopic overexpression of STAT3 did not affect it. NCTD strongly suppressed tumor growth in the tumor xenograft bearing HSC-3 cells, and the number of TUNEL-positive cells increased in NCTD-treated tumor tissues. In addition, NCTD did not cause any histopathological changes in the liver nor the kidney. NCTD induced programmed cell death via the activation of p38 MAPK in OSCC. Therefore, these results suggest that NCTD could be a potential anticancer drug candidate for the treatment of OSCC.
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Cole DW, Svider PF, Shenouda KG, Lee PB, Yoo NG, McLeod TM, Mutchnick SA, Yoo GH, Kaufman RJ, Callaghan MU, Fribley AM. Targeting the unfolded protein response in head and neck and oral cavity cancers. Exp Cell Res 2019; 382:111386. [PMID: 31075256 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many FDA-approved anti-cancer therapies, targeted toward a wide array of molecular targets and signaling networks, have been demonstrated to activate the unfolded protein response (UPR). Despite a critical role for UPR signaling in the apoptotic execution of cancer cells by many of these compounds, the authors are currently unaware of any instance whereby a cancer drug was developed with the UPR as the intended target. With the essential role of the UPR as a driving force in the genesis and maintenance of the malignant phenotype, a great number of pre-clinical studies have surged into the medical literature describing the ability of dozens of compounds to induce UPR signaling in a myriad of cancer models. The focus of the current work is to review the literature and explore the role of the UPR as a mediator of chemotherapy-induced cell death in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck (HNSCC) and oral cavity (OCSCC), with an emphasis on preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Cole
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Peter F Svider
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Kerolos G Shenouda
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Paul B Lee
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester Hills, Michigan, USA
| | - Nicholas G Yoo
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Thomas M McLeod
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Sean A Mutchnick
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - George H Yoo
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Randal J Kaufman
- Degenerative Diseases Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Michael U Callaghan
- Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Children's Hospital of Michigan, Detroit Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Andrew M Fribley
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA; Children's Hospital of Michigan, Detroit Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA; Molecular Therapeutics Program, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Tocco G, Zedda G, Casu M, Simbula G, Begala M. Solvent-Free Addition of Indole to Aldehydes: Unexpected Synthesis of Novel 1-[1-(1H-Indol-3-yl) Alkyl]-1H-Indoles and Preliminary Evaluation of Their Cytotoxicity in Hepatocarcinoma Cells. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22101747. [PMID: 29039799 PMCID: PMC6151463 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22101747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
New 1-[1-(1H-indol-3-yl) alkyl]-1H-indoles, surprisingly, have been obtained from the addition of indole to a variety of aldehydes under neat conditions. CaO, present in excess, was fundamental for carrying out the reaction with paraformaldehyde. Under the same reaction conditions, aromatic and heteroaromatic aldehydes afforded only classical bis (indolyl) aryl indoles. In this paper, the role of CaO, together with the regiochemistry and the mechanism of the reaction, are discussed in detail. The effect of some selected 3,3′- and 1,3′-diindolyl methane derivatives on cell proliferation of the hepatoma cell line FaO was also evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziella Tocco
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Unit of Drug Sciences, University of Cagliari, via Ospedale 72, 09124 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Gloria Zedda
- Merck Millipore, 39 Route Industrielle de la Hardt, 67120 Molsheim, France.
| | - Mariano Casu
- Department of Physics, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato CA, Italy.
| | - Gabriella Simbula
- Department of Biomedical Science, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Michela Begala
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Unit of Drug Sciences, University of Cagliari, via Ospedale 72, 09124 Cagliari, Italy.
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Jamsheena V, Shilpa G, Saranya J, Harry NA, Lankalapalli RS, Priya S. Anticancer activity of synthetic bis(indolyl)methane-ortho-biaryls against human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells. Chem Biol Interact 2016; 247:11-21. [PMID: 26807764 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2016.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bis(indolyl)methane appended biaryls were designed, synthesized and evaluated in human cervical cancer cell lines (HeLa) for their anticancer activities and compared against normal rat cardiac myoblasts (H9C2) cells. Compounds 1-12 were synthesized, with variations in one of the phenyl unit, in a single step by condensation of biaryl-2-carbaldehydes with indole in the presence of para-toluenesulfonic acid. Compound 1 exhibited a GI50 value of 11.00 ± 0.707 μM and the derivatives, compounds 4 and 11 showed a GI50 value of 8.33 ± 0.416 μM and 9.13 ± 0.177 μM respectively in HeLa cells and was found to be non-toxic to H9C2 cells up to 20 μM. Furthermore, compounds 1, 4 and 11 induced caspase dependent cellular apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibited the cell migration and downregulated the production of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in HeLa cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vellekkatt Jamsheena
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi 110001, India; Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India
| | - Ganesan Shilpa
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi 110001, India; Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India
| | - Jayaram Saranya
- Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India
| | - Nissy Ann Harry
- Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India
| | - Ravi Shankar Lankalapalli
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi 110001, India; Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India.
| | - Sulochana Priya
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi 110001, India; Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala, India.
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Zhang WW, Feng Z, Narod SA. Multiple therapeutic and preventive effects of 3,3'-diindolylmethane on cancers including prostate cancer and high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. J Biomed Res 2014; 28:339-48. [PMID: 25332705 PMCID: PMC4197384 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.28.20140008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cruciferous vegetables belong to the plant family that has flowers with four equal-sized petals in the pattern of a crucifer cross. These vegetables are an abundant source of dietary phytochemicals, including glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products such as indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM). By 2013, the total number of natural glucosinolates that have been documented is estimated to be 132. Recently, cruciferous vegetable intake has garnered great interest for its multiple health benefits such as anticancer, antiviral infections, human sex hormone regulation, and its therapeutic and preventive effects on prostate cancer and high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN). DIM is a hydrolysis product of glucosinolates and has been used in various trials. This review is to provide an insight into the latest developments of DIM in treating or preventing both prostate cancer and HGPIN.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Weiben Zhang
- Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Zhenqing Feng
- Department of Pathology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Steven A Narod
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Women's College Hospital, Women's College Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
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Carnosic Acid, a Rosemary Phenolic Compound, Induces Apoptosis Through Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated p38 Activation in Human Neuroblastoma IMR-32 Cells. Neurochem Res 2011; 36:2442-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0573-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Banerjee S, Kong D, Wang Z, Bao B, Hillman GG, Sarkar FH. Attenuation of multi-targeted proliferation-linked signaling by 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM): from bench to clinic. Mutat Res 2011; 728:47-66. [PMID: 21703360 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 06/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence provide credible support in favor of the potential role of bioactive products derived from ingesting cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, brussel sprouts, cauliflower and cabbage. Among many compounds, 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) is generated in the acidic environment of the stomach following dimerization of indole-3-carbinol (I3C) monomers present in these classes of vegetables. Both I3C and DIM have been investigated for their use in preventing, inhibiting, and reversing the progression of cancer - as a chemopreventive agent. In this review, we summarize an updated, wide-ranging pleiotropic anti-tumor and biological effects elicited by DIM against tumor cells. It is unfeasible to point one single target as basis of cellular target of action of DIM. We emphasize key cellular and molecular events that are effectively modulated in the direction of inducing apoptosis and suppressing cell proliferation. Collectively, DIM orchestrates signaling through Ah receptor, NF-κB/Wnt/Akt/mTOR pathways impinging on cell cycle arrest, modulation of key cytochrome P450 enzymes, altering angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis and epigenetic behavior of cancer cells. The ability of DIM to selectively induce tumor cells to undergo apoptosis has been observed in preclinical models, and thus it has been speculated in improving the therapeutic efficacy of other anticancer agents that have diverse molecular targets. Consequently, DIM has moved through preclinical development into Phase I clinical trials, thereby suggesting that DIM could be a promising and novel agent either alone or as an adjunct to conventional therapeutics such as chemo-radio and targeted therapies. An important development has been the availability of DIM formulation with superior bioavailability for humans. Therefore, DIM appears to be a promising chemopreventive agent or chemo-radio-sensitizer for the prevention of tumor recurrence and/or for the treatment of human malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeev Banerjee
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Dejuan Kong
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Zhiwei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Bin Bao
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Gilda G Hillman
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Fazlul H Sarkar
- Department of Pathology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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