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Fanelli G, Romano M, Lombardi G, Sacks SH. Soluble Collectin 11 (CL-11) Acts as an Immunosuppressive Molecule Potentially Used by Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Epithelial Cells to Modulate T Cell Response. Cells 2023; 12:1805. [PMID: 37443840 PMCID: PMC10341155 DOI: 10.3390/cells12131805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell allotransplantation is seen as a possible solution to retinal diseases. However, the RPE-complement system triggered by the binding of collectin-11 (CL-11) is a potential barrier for RPE transplantation as the complement-mediated inflammatory response may promote T cell recognition. To address this, we investigated the role of CL-11 on T cell immuno-response. We confirmed that RPE cells up-regulated MHC class I and expressed MHC class II molecules in an inflammatory setting. Co-cultures of RPE cells with T cells led to the inhibition of T cell proliferation. We found that CL-11 was partially responsible for this effect as T cell binding of CL-11 inhibited T cell proliferation in association with the downregulation of CD28. We also found that the suppressive action of CL-11 was abrogated in the presence of the RGD peptide given to block the T cell binding of CL-11 by its collagen-like domain. Because RPE cells can bind and secrete CL-11 under stress conditions, we postulate that soluble CL-11 contributes to the immunosuppressive properties of RPE cells. The investigation of this dual biological activity of CL-11, namely as a trigger of the complement cascade and a modulator of T cell responses, may provide additional clues about the mechanisms that orchestrate the immunogenic properties of RPE cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Fanelli
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College, London SE1 9RT, UK; (M.R.); (G.L.); (S.H.S.)
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Pathania AS, Prathipati P, Murakonda SP, Murakonda AB, Srivastava A, Avadhesh A, Byrareddy SN, Coulter DW, Gupta SC, Challagundla KB. Immune checkpoint molecules in neuroblastoma: A clinical perspective. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:247-258. [PMID: 35787940 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2022.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
High-risk neuroblastoma (NB) is challenging to treat with 5-year long-term survival in patients remaining below 50% and low chances of survival after tumor relapse or recurrence. Different strategies are being tested or under evaluation to destroy resistant tumors and improve survival outcomes in NB patients. Immunotherapy, which uses certain parts of a person's immune system to recognize or kill tumor cells, effectively improves patient outcomes in several types of cancer, including NB. One of the immunotherapy strategies is to block immune checkpoint signaling in tumors to increase tumor immunogenicity and anti-tumor immunity. Immune checkpoint proteins put brakes on immune cell functions to regulate immune activation, but this activity is exploited in tumors to evade immune surveillance and attack. Immune checkpoint proteins play an essential role in NB biology and immune escape mechanisms, which makes these tumors immunologically cold. Therapeutic strategies to block immune checkpoint signaling have shown promising outcomes in NB but only in a subset of patients. However, combining immune checkpoint blockade with other therapies, including conjugated antibody-based immunotherapy, radioimmunotherapy, tumor vaccines, or cellular therapies like modified T or natural killer (NK) cells, has shown encouraging results in enhancing anti-tumor immunity in the preclinical setting. An analysis of publicly available dataset using computational tools has unraveled the complexity of multiple cancer including NB. This review comprehensively summarizes the current information on immune checkpoint molecules, their biology, role in immune suppression and tumor development, and novel therapeutic approaches combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with other therapies to combat high-risk NB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup S Pathania
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Philip Prathipati
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, 7-6-8 Saito-Asagi, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Swati P Murakonda
- Sri Rajiv Gandhi College of Dental Sciences & Hospital, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560032, India
| | - Ajay B Murakonda
- Sree Sai Dental College & Research Institute, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh 532001, India
| | - Ankit Srivastava
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Avadhesh Avadhesh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Siddappa N Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Don W Coulter
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Subash C Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India; Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Guwahati, Assam, India.
| | - Kishore B Challagundla
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; The Child Health Research Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
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Kuske M, Haist M, Jung T, Grabbe S, Bros M. Immunomodulatory Properties of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors-More than Boosting T-Cell Responses? Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:1710. [PMID: 35406483 PMCID: PMC8996886 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14071710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The approval of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) that serve to enhance effector T-cell anti-tumor responses has strongly improved success rates in the treatment of metastatic melanoma and other tumor types. The currently approved ICI constitute monoclonal antibodies blocking cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein (CTLA)-4 and anti-programmed cell death (PD)-1. By this, the T-cell-inhibitory CTLA-4/CD80/86 and PD-1/PD-1L/2L signaling axes are inhibited. This leads to sustained effector T-cell activity and circumvents the immune evasion of tumor cells, which frequently upregulate PD-L1 expression and modulate immune checkpoint molecule expression on leukocytes. As a result, profound clinical responses are observed in 40-60% of metastatic melanoma patients. Despite the pivotal role of T effector cells for triggering anti-tumor immunity, mounting evidence indicates that ICI efficacy may also be attributable to other cell types than T effector cells. In particular, emerging research has shown that ICI also impacts innate immune cells, such as myeloid cells, natural killer cells and innate lymphoid cells, which may amplify tumoricidal functions beyond triggering T effector cells, and thus improves clinical efficacy. Effects of ICI on non-T cells may additionally explain, in part, the character and extent of adverse effects associated with treatment. Deeper knowledge of these effects is required to further develop ICI treatment in terms of responsiveness of patients to treatment, to overcome resistance to ICI and to alleviate adverse effects. In this review we give an overview into the currently known immunomodulatory effects of ICI treatment in immune cell types other than the T cell compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Matthias Bros
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstraße 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (M.K.); (M.H.); (T.J.); (S.G.)
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Liu MY, Klement JD, Langan CJ, van Riggelen J, Liu K. Expression regulation and function of PD-1 and PD-L1 in T lymphoma cells. Cell Immunol 2021; 366:104397. [PMID: 34157461 PMCID: PMC8327398 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2021.104397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
T lymphoma cells may constitutively express PD-1 and PD-L1. The relative role of PD-1 and PD-L1 in T lymphoma is incompletely understood. We report here that PD-1+ PDL-1+ human T lymphoma cells exhibit constitutive hyperactivation of the TCR signaling and do not respond to PD-L1-mediated suppression in vitro. Knocking out PD-1 or PD-L1 has no effects on T lymphoma cell apoptosis and proliferation in vitro, but significantly increased tumor-bearing mouse survival. Our findings determine that the constitutively active TCR signaling pathway maintain T lymphoma cell growth in vitro and that both PD-1 and PD-L1 promote T lymphoma growth in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Y Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - John D Klement
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Candace J Langan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Jan van Riggelen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Kebin Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA.
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Zhang L, Song S, Jin X, Wan X, Shahzad KA, Pei W, Zhao C, Shen C. An Artificial Antigen-Presenting Cell Delivering 11 Immune Molecules Expands Tumor Antigen–Specific CTLs in Ex Vivo and In Vivo Murine Melanoma Models. Cancer Immunol Res 2019; 7:1188-1201. [DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-18-0881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Contrasting Roles of the PD-1 Signaling Pathway in Dendritic Cell-Mediated Induction and Regulation of HIV-1-Specific Effector T Cell Functions. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.02035-18. [PMID: 30541848 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02035-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Eliciting highly functional CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses against a broad range of epitopes will likely be required for immunotherapeutic control of HIV-1 infection. However, the combination of CTL exhaustion and the ability of HIV-1 to rapidly establish CTL escape variants presents major hurdles toward this goal. Our previous work highlighted the use of monocyte-derived, mature, high-interleukin-12 (IL-12)-producing type 1 polarized dendritic cells (MDC1) to selectively induce more potent effector CTLs derived from naive, rather than memory, CD8+ T cell precursors isolated from HIV-1-positive participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. In this study, we report that these highly stimulatory antigen-presenting cells also express enhanced levels of the coinhibitory molecule programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), the ligand for PD-1, which is further upregulated upon subsequent stimulation with the CD4+ T helper cell-derived factor CD40L. Interestingly, blocking the PD-1 signaling pathway during MDC1 induction of HIV-1-specific CTL responses inhibited the priming, activation, and differentiation of naive CD8+ T cells into effector T cells expressing high levels of T-box transcription factor (T-bethi) and eomesodermin (Eomes+). In contrast, PD-1 blockade enhanced the overall magnitude of memory HIV-specific CTL responses and reversed the exhausted memory phenotype from a T-betlow/Eomes+ to a T-bethi/Eomes+ phenotype. These results indicate that the PD-L1/PD-1 signaling pathway has a previously unappreciated dual role in the induction and regulation of HIV-1-specific CTL immunity, which is greatly determined by the context and differentiation stage of the responsive CD8+ T cells.IMPORTANCE Targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint axis with signaling inhibitors has proven to be a powerful immunotherapeutic strategy to enhance the functional quality and survival of existing antigen-specific effector T cells. However, our study demonstrates that the context and timing of PD-1 signaling in T cells greatly impact the outcome of the effector response. In particular, we show that PD-1 activation plays a positive role during the DC-mediated initiation stage of the primary T cell response, while it serves as an inhibitory mechanism during the effector phase of the response. Therefore, caution should be taken in the design of therapies that include targeting of the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway in order to avoid potential negative impacts on the induction of de novo T cell responses.
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Gilardini Montani MS, Santarelli R, Falcinelli L, Gonnella R, Granato M, Di Renzo L, Cuomo L, Vitillo M, Faggioni A, Cirone M. EBV up-regulates PD-L1 on the surface of primary monocytes by increasing ROS and activating TLR signaling and STAT3. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 104:821-832. [PMID: 30040158 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2a0118-029rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) (also called B7-H1) is a membrane immune-modulatory protein whose overexpression on the surface of tumor cells as well as APCs impairs T-cell-mediated killing. Viruses that establish chronic infections have developed a number of strategies to escape from immune recognition including the up-regulation of PD-L1. This study shows for the first time that the human oncovirus EBV infects human primary monocytes using HLA-DR and induced a strong up-regulation of PD-L1 expression on their surface. Searching for the underlying mechanism/s leading to this immune suppressive effect, we found that EBV activated TLR signaling, increased intracellular ROS, and phosphorylated STAT3. Targeting these molecules partially reverted PD-L1 up-regulation that correlated with an altered cytokine production and a reduction of monocyte cell survival, strongly impairing the antiviral immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Saveria Gilardini Montani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Santarelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Falcinelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Gonnella
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Marisa Granato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Livia Di Renzo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Cuomo
- San Filippo Neri Hospital, General Pathology, Asl Roma 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Vitillo
- San Filippo Neri Hospital, General Pathology, Asl Roma 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Mara Cirone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
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Zhao L, Niu C, Shi X, Xu D, Li M, Cui J, Li W, Xu J, Jin H. Dendritic cells loaded with the lysate of tumor cells infected with Newcastle Disease Virus trigger potent anti-tumor immunity by promoting the secretion of IFN-γ and IL-2 from T cells. Oncol Lett 2018; 16:1180-1188. [PMID: 30061941 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells that are pivotal in the generation and sustainability of antitumor immune responses. Whole tumor cell lysates (TCLs) have been used as sources of tumor antigens for the development of DC vaccines. However, the clinical outcomes of the use of TCL-based DC vaccines have so far been unsatisfactory because of the weak immunogenicity of tumor cells. To improve the efficacy of TCL-based DC vaccines, viruses have been used to enhance the immunity of TCLs and to further enhance the antigen delivery and antigen-presenting ability of DCs. The aim of the present study was to improve the antigen-presenting ability of DCs and to use them to effectively activate T lymphocytes. The present study demonstrated that DCs loaded with the lysate of Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)-infected tumor cells (NDV-TCL) have increased levels of cluster of differentiation 80 (CD80), CD86, CD83 and human leukocyte antigen-antigen D-associated expression, compared with those loaded with TCL alone. The DCs loaded with the NDV-TCL promoted T-cell proliferation and antitumor cytokine secretion from T cells. These results indicated that loading DCs with NDV-TCL could enhance the antigen-presenting ability of the DCs. On the basis of the results of the present study, we hypothesize that this method of loading DCs with NDV-TCL can be used to develop novel DC vaccines for tumor immunotherapy in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianjing Zhao
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,State Key Laboratory on Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, P.R. China
| | - Chao Niu
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Xiumin Shi
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Dongsheng Xu
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Min Li
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Jiuwei Cui
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Wei Li
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Jianting Xu
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Haofan Jin
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
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Miyao K, Terakura S, Okuno S, Julamanee J, Watanabe K, Hamana H, Kishi H, Sakemura R, Koyama D, Goto T, Nishida T, Murata M, Kiyoi H. Introduction of Genetically Modified CD3ζ Improves Proliferation and Persistence of Antigen-Specific CTLs. Cancer Immunol Res 2018; 6:733-744. [DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-17-0538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Zhang L, Wang L, Shahzad KA, Xu T, Wan X, Pei W, Shen C. Paracrine release of IL-2 and anti-CTLA-4 enhances the ability of artificial polymer antigen-presenting cells to expand antigen-specific T cells and inhibit tumor growth in a mouse model. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2017; 66:1229-1241. [PMID: 28501941 PMCID: PMC11028408 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-017-2016-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence indicates that bead-based artificial antigen-presenting cells (aAPCs) are a powerful tool to induce antigen-specific T cell responses in vitro and in vivo. To date, most conventional aAPCs have been generated by coupling an antigen signal (signal 1) and one or two costimulatory signals, such as anti-CD28 with anti-LFA1 or anti-4-1BB (signal 2), onto the surfaces of cell-sized or nanoscale magnetic beads or polyester latex beads. The development of a biodegradable scaffold and the combined use of multiple costimulatory signals as well as third signals for putative clinical applications is the next step in the development of this technology. Here, a novel biodegradable aAPC platform for active immunotherapy was developed by co-encapsulating IL-2 and anti-CTLA-4 inside cell-sized polylactic-co-glycolic acid microparticles (PLGA-MPs) while co-coupling an H-2Kb/TRP2-Ig dimer and anti-CD28 onto the surface. Cytokines (activating signal) and antibodies (anti-inhibition signal) were efficiently co-encapsulated in PLGA-MP-based aAPCs and co-released without interfering with each other. The targeted, sustained co-release of IL-2 and anti-CTLA-4 achieved markedly enhanced, synergistic effects in activating and expanding tumor antigen-specific T cells both in vitro and in vivo, as well as in inhibiting tumor growth in a mouse melanoma model, as compared with conventional two-signal aAPCs and IL-2 or anti-CTLA-4 single-released aAPCs. These data revealed the feasibility and importance of the paracrine release of multiple costimulatory molecules and cytokines from biodegradable aAPCs and thus provide a proof of principle for the future use of polymeric aAPCs for active immunotherapy of tumors and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Limin Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Khawar Ali Shahzad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Xu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Wan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiya Pei
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuanlai Shen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaqiao Rd, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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