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Chauhan S, Jaiswal S, Jakhmola V, Singh B, Bhattacharya S, Garg M, Sengupta S. Potential role of p53 deregulation in modulating immune responses in human malignancies: A paradigm to develop immunotherapy. Cancer Lett 2024; 588:216766. [PMID: 38408603 PMCID: PMC7615729 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
The crucial role played by the oncogenic expression of TP53, stemming from mutation or amyloid formation, in various human malignancies has been extensively studied over the past two decades. Interestingly, the potential role of TP53 as a crucial player in modulating immune responses has provided new insight into the field of cancer biology. The loss of p53's transcriptional functions and/or the acquisition of tumorigenic properties can efficiently modulate the recruitment and functions of myeloid and lymphoid cells, ultimately leading to the evasion of immune responses in human tumors. Consequently, the oncogenic nature of the tumor suppressor p53 can dynamically alter the function of immune cells, providing support for tumor progression and metastasis. This review comprehensively explores the dual role of p53 as both the guardian of the genome and an oncogenic driver, especially in the context of regulation of autophagy, apoptosis, the tumor microenvironment, immune cells, innate immunity, and adaptive immune responses. Additionally, the focus of this review centers on how p53 status in the immune response can be harnessed for the development of tailored therapeutic strategies and their potential application in immunotherapy against human malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivi Chauhan
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India
| | - Shivani Jaiswal
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India
| | - Vibhuti Jakhmola
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India
| | - Bhavana Singh
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India
| | - Sujata Bhattacharya
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India
| | - Manoj Garg
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India.
| | - Shinjinee Sengupta
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noda, 201313, India.
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Oladejo M, Paterson Y, Wood LM. Clinical Experience and Recent Advances in the Development of Listeria-Based Tumor Immunotherapies. Front Immunol 2021; 12:642316. [PMID: 33936058 PMCID: PMC8081050 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.642316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The promise of tumor immunotherapy to significantly improve survival in patients who are refractory to long-standing therapies, such as chemotherapy and radiation, is now being realized. While immune checkpoint inhibitors that target PD-1 and CTLA-4 are leading the charge in clinical efficacy, there are a number of other promising tumor immunotherapies in advanced development such as Listeria-based vaccines. Due to its unique life cycle and ability to induce robust CTL responses, attenuated strains of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) have been utilized as vaccine vectors targeting both infectious disease and cancer. In fact, preclinical studies in a multitude of cancer types have found Listeria-based vaccines to be highly effective at activating anti-tumor immunity and eradicating tumors. Several clinical trials have now recently reported their results, demonstrating promising efficacy against some cancers, and unique challenges. Development of the Lm-based immunotherapies continues with discovery of improved methods of attenuation, novel uses, and more effective combinatorial regimens. In this review, we provide a brief background of Listeria monocytogenes as a vaccine vector, discuss recent clinical experience with Listeria-based immunotherapies, and detail the advancements in development of improved Listeria-based vaccine platforms and in their utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Oladejo
- Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Yvonne Paterson
- Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Laurence M. Wood
- Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
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Pierini S, Mishra A, Perales-Linares R, Uribe-Herranz M, Beghi S, Giglio A, Pustylnikov S, Costabile F, Rafail S, Amici A, Facciponte JG, Koumenis C, Facciabene A. Combination of vasculature targeting, hypofractionated radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitor elicits potent antitumor immune response and blocks tumor progression. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:jitc-2020-001636. [PMID: 33563772 PMCID: PMC7875275 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-001636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tumor endothelial marker 1 (TEM1) is a protein expressed in the tumor-associated endothelium and/or stroma of various types of cancer. We previously demonstrated that immunization with a plasmid-DNA vaccine targeting TEM1 reduced tumor progression in three murine cancer models. Radiation therapy (RT) is an established cancer modality used in more than 50% of patients with solid tumors. RT can induce tumor-associated vasculature injury, triggering immunogenic cell death and inhibition of the irradiated tumor and distant non-irradiated tumor growth (abscopal effect). Combination treatment of RT with TEM1 immunotherapy may complement and augment established immune checkpoint blockade. Methods Mice bearing bilateral subcutaneous CT26 colorectal or TC1 lung tumors were treated with a novel heterologous TEM1-based vaccine, in combination with RT, and anti-programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) antibody or combinations of these therapies, tumor growth of irradiated and abscopal tumors was subsequently assessed. Analysis of tumor blood perfusion was evaluated by CD31 staining and Doppler ultrasound imaging. Immunophenotyping of peripheral and tumor-infiltrating immune cells as well as functional analysis was analyzed by flow cytometry, ELISpot assay and adoptive cell transfer (ACT) experiments. Results We demonstrate that addition of RT to heterologous TEM1 vaccination reduces progression of CT26 and TC1 irradiated and abscopal distant tumors as compared with either single treatment. Mechanistically, RT increased major histocompatibility complex class I molecule (MHCI) expression on endothelial cells and improved immune recognition of the endothelium by anti-TEM1 T cells with subsequent severe vascular damage as measured by reduced microvascular density and tumor blood perfusion. Heterologous TEM1 vaccine and RT combination therapy boosted tumor-associated antigen (TAA) cross-priming (ie, anti-gp70) and augmented programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/PD-L1 signaling within CT26 tumor. Blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 axis in combination with dual therapy further increased the antitumor effect and gp70-specific immune responses. ACT experiments show that anti-gp70 T cells are required for the antitumor effects of the combination therapy. Conclusion Our findings describe novel cooperative mechanisms between heterologous TEM1 vaccination and RT, highlighting the pivotal role that TAA cross-priming plays for an effective antitumor strategy. Furthermore, we provide rationale for using heterologous TEM1 vaccination and RT as an add-on to immune checkpoint blockade as triple combination therapy into early-phase clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Pierini
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Abhishek Mishra
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Renzo Perales-Linares
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mireia Uribe-Herranz
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Silvia Beghi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrea Giglio
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sergei Pustylnikov
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Francesca Costabile
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stavros Rafail
- Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Augusto Amici
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Camerino, Marche, Italy
| | - John G Facciponte
- Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Costantinos Koumenis
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrea Facciabene
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA .,Ovarian Cancer Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Burg AR, Erickson JJ, Turner LH, Pham G, Kinder JM, Way SS. Persistent Zika Virus Clinical Susceptibility despite Reduced Viral Burden in Mice with Expanded Virus-Specific CD8 + T Cells Primed by Recombinant Listeria monocytogenes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 205:447-453. [PMID: 32522837 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines against Zika virus (ZIKV) infection that target CD8+ T cells are of considerable interest because Abs may enhance infection susceptibility. However, whether CD8+ T cells are protective or promote susceptibility to clinical infection symptoms remains uncertain. To more precisely investigate ZIKV-specific CD8+ T cells in isolation, we engineered a Listeria monocytogenes-based vector to express a single MHC class I-restricted immune dominant peptide, E294-302, from ZIKV envelope protein. We show accumulation of activated ZIKV-specific CD8+ T cells primed by recombinant L. monocytogenes is associated with reductions in circulating virus levels after ZIKV challenge in type I IFN receptor-deficient mice and wildtype mice administered neutralizing Abs against type I IFN receptor. Interestingly, susceptibility to ZIKV clinical infection including weight loss and mortality each persists and is neither significantly improved nor worsened compared with isogenic L. monocytogenes-primed control mice. These data demonstrating persistent ZIKV clinical susceptibility despite reduced viral burden in mice with expanded virus-specific CD8+ T cells highlights the need for targeting other adaptive immune components in developing vaccines against ZIKV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley R Burg
- Center for Inflammation and Tolerance, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; and
| | - John J Erickson
- Division of Neonatology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Lucien H Turner
- Center for Inflammation and Tolerance, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; and
| | - Giang Pham
- Center for Inflammation and Tolerance, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; and
| | - Jeremy M Kinder
- Center for Inflammation and Tolerance, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; and
| | - Sing Sing Way
- Center for Inflammation and Tolerance, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; .,Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229; and
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5
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Stark FC, Weeratna RD, Deschatelets L, Gurnani K, Dudani R, McCluskie MJ, Krishnan L. An Archaeosome-Adjuvanted Vaccine and Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy Combination Significantly Enhances Protection from Murine Melanoma. Vaccines (Basel) 2017; 5:E38. [PMID: 29072624 PMCID: PMC5748605 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines5040038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Archaeosomes constitute archaeal lipid vesicle vaccine adjuvants that evoke a strong CD8⁺ T cell response to antigenic cargo. Therapeutic treatment of murine B16-ovalbumin (B16-OVA) melanoma with archaeosome-OVA eliminates small subcutaneous solid tumors; however, they eventually resurge despite an increased frequency of circulating and tumor infiltrating OVA-CD8⁺ T cells. Herein, a number of different approaches were evaluated to improve responses, including dose number, interval, and the combination of vaccine with checkpoint inhibitors. Firstly, we found that tumor protection could not be enhanced by repetitive and/or delayed boosting to maximize the CD8⁺ T cell number and/or phenotype. The in vivo cytotoxicity of vaccine-induced OVA-CD8⁺ T cells was impaired in tumor-bearing mice. Additionally, tumor-infiltrating OVA-CD8⁺ T cells had an increased expression of programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) compared to other organ compartments, suggesting impaired function. Combination therapy of tumor-bearing mice with the vaccine archaeosome-OVA, and α-CTLA-4 administered concurrently as well as α-PD-1 and an α-PD-L1 antibody administered starting 9 days after tumor challenge given on a Q3Dx4 schedule (days 9, 12, 15 and 18), significantly enhanced survival. Following multi-combination therapy ~70% of mice had rapid tumor recession, with no detectable tumor mass after >80 days in comparison to a median survival of 17-22 days for untreated or experimental groups receiving single therapies. Overall, archaeosomes offer a powerful platform for delivering cancer antigens when used in combination with checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicity C Stark
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Risini D Weeratna
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Lise Deschatelets
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Komal Gurnani
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Renu Dudani
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Michael J McCluskie
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Lakshmi Krishnan
- National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics, 1200 Montreal Rd., Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
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Bolhassani A, Naderi N, Soleymani S. Prospects and progress of Listeria-based cancer vaccines. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2017; 17:1389-1400. [PMID: 28823183 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2017.1366446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The development of an effective therapeutic vaccine to induce cancer-specific immunity remains problematic. Recently, a species of intracellular pathogen known as Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) has been used to transfer DNA, RNA and proteins into tumour cells as well as elicit an immune response against tumour-specific antigens. Areas covered: Herein, the authors provide the mechanisms of different Listeria monocytogenes strains, which are potential therapeutic cancer vaccine vectors, in addition to their preclinical and clinical development. They also speculate on the future of Lm-based tumour immunotherapies. The article is based on literature published on PubMed and data reported in clinical trials. Expert opinion: Attenuated strains of Listeria monocytogenes have safely been applied as therapeutic bacterial vectors for the delivery of cancer vaccines. These vectors stimulate MHCI and MHCII pathways as well as the proliferation of antigen-specific T lymphocytes. Several preclinical studies have demonstrated the potency of Lm in intracellular gene and protein delivery in vitro and in vivo. They have also indicated safety and efficiacy in clinical trials. Readers should be aware that the ability of attenuated Lm strains to induce potent immune responses depends on the type of deleted or inactivated Lm virulent gene or genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azam Bolhassani
- a Department of Hepatitis and AIDS , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Niloofar Naderi
- a Department of Hepatitis and AIDS , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Sepehr Soleymani
- a Department of Hepatitis and AIDS , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
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Bayyurt B, Tincer G, Almacioglu K, Alpdundar E, Gursel M, Gursel I. Encapsulation of two different TLR ligands into liposomes confer protective immunity and prevent tumor development. J Control Release 2017; 247:134-144. [PMID: 28069554 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nucleic acid-based Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands are promising adjuvants and immunotherapeutic agents. Combination of TLR ligands potentiates immune response by providing synergistic immune activity via triggering different signaling pathways and may impact antigen dependent T-cell immune memory. However, their short circulation time due to nuclease attack hampers their clinical performance. Liposomes offer inclusion of protein and nucleic acid-based drugs with high encapsulation efficiency and drug loading. Furthermore, they protect cargo from enzymatic cleavage while providing stability, and enhancing biological activity. Herein, we aimed to develop a liposomal carrier system co-encapsulating TLR3 (polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid; poly(I:C)) and TLR9 (oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) expressing unmethylated CpG motifs; CpG ODN) ligands as immunoadjuvants together with protein antigen. To demonstrate that this depot system not only induce synergistic innate immune activation but also boost antigen-dependent immune response, we analyzed the potency of dual ligand encapsulated liposomes in long-term cancer protection assay. Data revealed that CpG ODN and poly(I:C) co-encapsulation significantly enhanced cytokine production from spleen cells. Activation and maturation of dendritic cells as well as bactericidal potency of macrophages along with internalization capacity of ligands were elevated upon incubation with liposomes co-encapsulating CpG ODN and poly(I:C). Immunization with co-encapsulated liposomes induced OVA-specific Th1-biased immunity which persisted for eight months post-booster injection. Subsequent challenge with OVA-expressing tumor cell line, E.G7, demonstrated that mice immunized with liposomes co-encapsulating dual ligands had significantly slower tumor progression. Tumor clearance was dependent on OVA-specific cytotoxic memory T-cells. These results suggest that liposomes co-encapsulating TLR3 and TLR9 ligands and a specific cancer antigen could be developed as a preventive cancer vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banu Bayyurt
- Thorlab. Therapeutic ODN Research Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Bilkent, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gizem Tincer
- Thorlab. Therapeutic ODN Research Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Bilkent, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kubra Almacioglu
- Thorlab. Therapeutic ODN Research Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Bilkent, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Esin Alpdundar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mayda Gursel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ihsan Gursel
- Thorlab. Therapeutic ODN Research Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Bilkent, 06800, Ankara, Turkey.
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Momtahen S, Curtin J, Mittal K. Current Chemotherapy and Potential New Targets in Uterine Leiomyosarcoma. J Clin Med Res 2016; 8:181-9. [PMID: 26858789 PMCID: PMC4737027 DOI: 10.14740/jocmr2419w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of chemotherapeutic agents have been used for treating recurrent or advanced stage uterine leiomyosarcoma (ULMS). The response rates of these current agents are disappointing, with partial response rates varying from 0% to 33%, and complete response rates varying from 0% to 8%. Recent studies have documented many molecular changes in ULMSs. Prominent amongst these are gains of growth factors C-MYC, Bcl-2, K-ras, and Ki-67, and losses in tumor suppressors p16, p53, Rb1, ING2 and D14S267. Various techniques that have been used to target these molecules are presented. Targeting specific therapies at these underlying molecular changes could potentially yield better response rates with fewer side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Momtahen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - John Curtin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Langone Medical Center, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Khush Mittal
- Department of Pathology, Langone Medical Center, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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9
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Zappasodi R, Merghoub T. Alphavirus-based vaccines in melanoma: rationale and potential improvements in immunotherapeutic combinations. Immunotherapy 2015; 7:981-97. [DOI: 10.2217/imt.15.64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockade has formally demonstrated the clinical benefit of immunotherapy against melanoma. New immunotherapeutic modalities are currently explored to improve the management of relapsing/refractory patients. Potent antitumor vaccines would have the advantage to promote long-lasting tumor control while limiting autoimmunity. Alphavirus vectors and nonreplicating particles offer versatile platforms to deliver antigen expression and immunize against cancer. They have shown promising preclinical results and initial proof of clinical activity in melanoma. The growing number of clinically available immunomodulatory agents provides a tremendous opportunity to exploit and revisit anticancer vaccines in the setting of powerful immunotherapeutic combinations. Accelerating the evaluation of alphavirus-based vaccines in patients with immune sensitive, but still very deadly malignancies, such as melanoma, is thus extremely important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Zappasodi
- Ludwig Collaborative & Swim Across America Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
| | - Taha Merghoub
- Ludwig Collaborative & Swim Across America Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
- Melanoma & Immunotherapeutics Service MSKCC, New York, NY, USA
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10
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Zhang L, Wang W, Wang S. Effect of vaccine administration modality on immunogenicity and efficacy. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1509-23. [PMID: 26313239 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1081067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The many factors impacting the efficacy of a vaccine can be broadly divided into three categories: features of the vaccine itself, including immunogen design, vaccine type, formulation, adjuvant and dosing; individual variations among vaccine recipients and vaccine administration-related parameters. While much literature exists related to vaccines, and recently systems biology has started to dissect the impact of individual subject variation on vaccine efficacy, few studies have focused on the role of vaccine administration-related parameters on vaccine efficacy. Parenteral and mucosal vaccinations are traditional approaches for licensed vaccines; novel vaccine delivery approaches, including needless injection and adjuvant formulations, are being developed to further improve vaccine safety and efficacy. This review provides a brief summary of vaccine administration-related factors, including vaccination approach, delivery route and method of administration, to gain a better understanding of their potential impact on the safety and immunogenicity of candidate vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhang
- a 1 Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China.,b 2 China-US Vaccine Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Wei Wang
- c 3 Wang Biologics, LLC, Chesterfield, MO 63017, USA ; Current affiliation: Bayer HealthCare, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA
| | - Shixia Wang
- d 4 Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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11
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Sánchez-Sampedro L, Perdiguero B, Mejías-Pérez E, García-Arriaza J, Di Pilato M, Esteban M. The evolution of poxvirus vaccines. Viruses 2015; 7:1726-803. [PMID: 25853483 PMCID: PMC4411676 DOI: 10.3390/v7041726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
After Edward Jenner established human vaccination over 200 years ago, attenuated poxviruses became key players to contain the deadliest virus of its own family: Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox. Cowpox virus (CPXV) and horsepox virus (HSPV) were extensively used to this end, passaged in cattle and humans until the appearance of vaccinia virus (VACV), which was used in the final campaigns aimed to eradicate the disease, an endeavor that was accomplished by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980. Ever since, naturally evolved strains used for vaccination were introduced into research laboratories where VACV and other poxviruses with improved safety profiles were generated. Recombinant DNA technology along with the DNA genome features of this virus family allowed the generation of vaccines against heterologous diseases, and the specific insertion and deletion of poxvirus genes generated an even broader spectrum of modified viruses with new properties that increase their immunogenicity and safety profile as vaccine vectors. In this review, we highlight the evolution of poxvirus vaccines, from first generation to the current status, pointing out how different vaccines have emerged and approaches that are being followed up in the development of more rational vaccines against a wide range of diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- History, 18th Century
- History, 19th Century
- History, 20th Century
- History, 21st Century
- Humans
- Poxviridae/immunology
- Poxviridae/isolation & purification
- Smallpox/prevention & control
- Smallpox Vaccine/history
- Smallpox Vaccine/immunology
- Smallpox Vaccine/isolation & purification
- Vaccines, Attenuated/history
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vaccines, Attenuated/isolation & purification
- Vaccines, Synthetic/history
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/isolation & purification
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Sánchez-Sampedro
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Beatriz Perdiguero
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Ernesto Mejías-Pérez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain
| | - Juan García-Arriaza
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain
| | - Mauro Di Pilato
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Mariano Esteban
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
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Abstract
The therapeutic potential of host-specific and tumour-specific immune responses is well recognized and, after many years, active immunotherapies directed at inducing or augmenting these responses are entering clinical practice. Antitumour immunization is a complex, multi-component task, and the optimal combinations of antigens, adjuvants, delivery vehicles and routes of administration are not yet identified. Active immunotherapy must also address the immunosuppressive and tolerogenic mechanisms deployed by tumours. This Review provides an overview of new results from clinical studies of therapeutic cancer vaccines directed against tumour-associated antigens and discusses their implications for the use of active immunotherapy.
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13
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Hardwick NR, Carroll M, Kaltcheva T, Qian D, Lim D, Leong L, Chu P, Kim J, Chao J, Fakih M, Yen Y, Espenschied J, Ellenhorn JDI, Diamond DJ, Chung V. p53MVA therapy in patients with refractory gastrointestinal malignancies elevates p53-specific CD8+ T-cell responses. Clin Cancer Res 2014; 20:4459-70. [PMID: 24987057 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-13-3361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To conduct a phase I trial of a modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vaccine delivering wild-type human p53 (p53MVA) in patients with refractory gastrointestinal cancers. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Three patients were vaccinated with 1.0×10(8) plaque-forming unit (pfu) p53MVA followed by nine patients at 5.6×10(8) pfu. Toxicity was classified using the NCI Common Toxicity Criteria and clinical responses were assessed by CT scan. Peripheral blood samples were collected pre- and post-immunization for immunophenotyping, monitoring of p53MVA-induced immune response, and examination of PD1 checkpoint inhibition in vitro. RESULTS p53MVA immunization was well tolerated at both doses, with no adverse events above grade 2. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells showing enhanced recognition of a p53 overlapping peptide library were detectable after the first immunization, particularly in the CD8+ T-cell compartment (P=0.03). However, in most patients, this did not expand further with the second and third immunization. The frequency of PD1+ T cells detectable in patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was significantly higher than in healthy controls. Furthermore, the frequency of PD1+ CD8+ T cells showed an inverse correlation with the peak CD8+ p53 response (P=0.02) and antibody blockade of PD1 in vitro increased the p53 immune responses detected after the second or third immunizations. Induction of strong T-cell and antibody responses to the MVA backbone were also apparent. CONCLUSION p53MVA was well tolerated and induced robust CD8+ T-cell responses. Combination of p53MVA with immune checkpoint inhibition could help sustain immune responses and lead to enhanced clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola R Hardwick
- Division of Translational Vaccine Research, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Mary Carroll
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Teodora Kaltcheva
- Division of Translational Vaccine Research, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Dajun Qian
- Bioinformatics Core Facility, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Dean Lim
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Lucille Leong
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Peiguo Chu
- Department of Pathology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Joseph Kim
- Department of Surgical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Joseph Chao
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Marwan Fakih
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Yun Yen
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Jonathan Espenschied
- Division of Cancer Etiology and Outcomes Research, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | | | - Don J Diamond
- Division of Translational Vaccine Research, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California.
| | - Vincent Chung
- Department of Medical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
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14
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Wood LM, Paterson Y. Attenuated Listeria monocytogenes: a powerful and versatile vector for the future of tumor immunotherapy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:51. [PMID: 24860789 PMCID: PMC4026700 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
For over a century, inactivated or attenuated bacteria have been employed in the clinic as immunotherapies to treat cancer, starting with the Coley's vaccines in the 19th century and leading to the currently approved bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine for bladder cancer. While effective, the inflammation induced by these therapies is transient and not designed to induce long-lasting tumor-specific cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses that have proven so adept at eradicating tumors. Therefore, in order to maintain the benefits of bacteria-induced acute inflammation but gain long-lasting anti-tumor immunity, many groups have constructed recombinant bacteria expressing tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) for the purpose of activating tumor-specific CTLs. One bacterium has proven particularly adept at inducing powerful anti-tumor immunity, Listeria monocytogenes (Lm). Lm is a gram-positive bacterium that selectively infects antigen-presenting cells wherein it is able to efficiently deliver tumor antigens to both the MHC Class I and II antigen presentation pathways for activation of tumor-targeting CTL-mediated immunity. Lm is a versatile bacterial vector as evidenced by its ability to induce therapeutic immunity against a wide-array of TAAs and specifically infect and kill tumor cells directly. It is for these reasons, among others, that Lm-based immunotherapies have delivered impressive therapeutic efficacy in preclinical models of cancer for two decades and are now showing promise clinically. In this review, we will provide an overview of the history leading up to the development of current Lm-based immunotherapies, the advantages and mechanisms of Lm as a therapeutic vaccine vector, the preclinical experience with Lm-based immunotherapies targeting a number of malignancies, and the recent findings from clinical trials along with concluding remarks on the future of Lm-based tumor immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence M Wood
- Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center Abilene, TX, USA
| | - Yvonne Paterson
- Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA ; University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing Philadelphia, PA, USA
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15
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Soong RS, Song L, Trieu J, Lee SY, He L, Tsai YC, Wu TC, Hung CF. Direct T cell activation via CD40 ligand generates high avidity CD8+ T cells capable of breaking immunological tolerance for the control of tumors. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93162. [PMID: 24664420 PMCID: PMC3963987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CD40 and CD40 ligand (CD40L) are costimulatory molecules that play a pivotal role in the proinflammatory immune response. Primarily expressed by activated CD4+ T cells, CD40L binds to CD40 on antigen presenting cells (APCs), thereby inducing APC activation. APCs, in turn, prime cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Here, two tumor-associated antigen (TAA) animal models, p53-based and GP100-based, were utilized to examine the ability of CD40-CD40L to improve antigen-specific CTL-mediated antitumor immune responses. Although p53 and GP100 are self-antigens that generate low affinity antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, studies have shown that their functional avidity can be improved with CD40L-expressing APCs. Therefore, in the current study, we immunized mice with a DNA construct encoding a TAA in conjunction with another construct encoding CD40L via intramuscular injection followed by electroporation. We observed a significant increase in the antigen-specific CTL-mediated immune responses as well as the potent antitumor effects in both models. Antibody depletion experiments demonstrated that CD8+ T cells play a crucial role in eliciting antitumor effects in vaccinated mice. Furthermore, we showed that in vitro stimulation with irradiated tumor cells expressing both TAA and CD40L improved the functional avidity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Thus, our data show that vaccination with TAA/CD40L DNA can induce potent antitumor effects against TAA-expressing tumors through the generation of better functioning antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Our study serves as an important foundation for future clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruey-Shyang Soong
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Keelung, Keelung City, Taiwan
- Chang Gung University, College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Liwen Song
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Pharmacy School of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research, Shanghai, China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital of Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Janson Trieu
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sung Yong Lee
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University Medical Center, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Liangmei He
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ya-Chea Tsai
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - T.-C. Wu
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (C-FH); (T-CW)
| | - Chien-Fu Hung
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (C-FH); (T-CW)
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16
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Guirnalda P, Wood L, Paterson Y. Listeria monocytogenes and its products as agents for cancer immunotherapy. Adv Immunol 2012; 113:81-118. [PMID: 22244580 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394590-7.00004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the use of Listeria monocytogenes and its virulence factors as cancer immunotherapeutics. We describe their development as vectors to carry protein tumor antigen and eukaryotic DNA plasmids to antigen-presenting cells and efforts to harness their tumor-homing properties. We also describe their use as vectors of angiogenic molecules to induce an immune response that will destroy tumor vasculature. The background knowledge necessary to understand the biology behind the rationale to develop Listeria as a vaccine vector for tumor immunotherapy is included as well as a brief summary of the major therapies that have used this approach thus far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Guirnalda
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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17
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Song GY, Srivastava T, Ishizaki H, Lacey SF, Diamond DJ, Ellenhorn JDI. Recombinant modified vaccinia virus ankara (MVA) expressing wild-type human p53 induces specific antitumor CTL expansion. Cancer Invest 2011; 29:501-10. [PMID: 21843052 PMCID: PMC3260009 DOI: 10.3109/07357907.2011.606248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The p53 gene product is an attractive target for tumor immunotherapy. The present study aims to understand the potential of MVAp53 vaccine to induce expansion of p53-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte ex vivo in cancer patients. The result indicated that 14 of 23 cancer patients demonstrated p53-specific IFN-γ production, degranulation, cell proliferation, and lysis of p53 overexpressed human tumor cell lines. These experiments show that MVAp53 stimulation has the potential to induce the expansion of p53-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte from the memory T cell repertoire. The data suggest that MVAp53 vaccine is an ideal candidate for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Yun Song
- Division of Translational Vaccine Research, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
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18
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Dodson LF, Hawkins WG, Goedegebuure P. Potential targets for pancreatic cancer immunotherapeutics. Immunotherapy 2011; 3:517-37. [PMID: 21463193 DOI: 10.2217/imt.11.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the fourth leading cause of cancer death with an overall 5-year survival of less than 5%. As there is ample evidence that pancreatic adenocarcinomas elicit antitumor immune responses, identification of pancreatic cancer-associated antigens has spurred the development of vaccination-based strategies for treatment. While promising results have been observed in animal tumor models, most clinical studies have found only limited success. As most trials were performed in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer, the contribution of immune suppressor mechanisms should be taken into account. In this article, we detail recent work in tumor antigen vaccination and the recently identified mechanisms of immune suppression in pancreatic cancer. We offer our perspective on how to increase the clinical efficacy of vaccines for pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindzy F Dodson
- Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Surgery, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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19
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Ishizaki H, Manuel ER, Song GY, Srivastava T, Sun S, Diamond DJ, Ellenhorn JDI. Modified vaccinia Ankara expressing survivin combined with gemcitabine generates specific antitumor effects in a murine pancreatic carcinoma model. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010; 60:99-109. [PMID: 20960189 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-010-0923-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Survivin is overexpressed by 70-80% of pancreatic cancers, and is associated with resistance to chemotherapy and a poor prognosis. Gemcitabine has been a standard treatment for patients with advanced pancreatic cancer for a decade. Recent reports have demonstrated that gemcitabine treatment attenuates the tumor-suppressive environment by eliminating CD11b(+)/Gr-1(+) myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). We hypothesize that a cancer vaccine targeting survivin can achieve enhanced efficacy when combined with gemcitabine. In this study, we tested this hypothesis using modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) expressing full-length murine survivin. The poorly immunogenic mouse pancreas adenocarcinoma cell line, Pan02, which expresses murine survivin and is syngeneic to C57BL/6, was used for this study. Immunization with MVA-survivin resulted in a modest therapeutic antitumor effect on established Pan02 tumors. When administered with gemcitabine, MVA-survivin immunization resulted in significant tumor regression and prolonged survival. The enhanced vaccine efficacy was associated with decreased CD11b(+)/Gr-1(+) MDSCs. To analyze the survivin-specific immune response to MVA-survivin immunization, we utilized a peptide library of 15mers with 11 residues overlapping from full-length murine survivin. Splenocytes from mice immunized with MVA-survivin produced intracellular γ-interferon in response to in vitro stimulation with the overlapping peptide library. Increased survivin-specific CD8(+) T cells that specifically recognized the Pan02 tumor line were seen in mice treated with MVA-survivin and gemcitabine. These data suggest that vaccination with MVA-survivin in combination with gemcitabine represents an attractive strategy to overcome tumor-induced peripheral immune tolerance, and this effect has potential for clinical benefit in pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenobu Ishizaki
- Division of General and Oncologic Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, 1500 East Duarte Road, Duarte, CA 91010-3000, USA
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20
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Walczak M, de Mare A, Riezebos-Brilman A, Regts J, Hoogeboom BN, Visser JT, Fiedler M, Jansen-Dürr P, van der Zee AGJ, Nijman HW, Wilschut J, Daemen T. Heterologous Prime-Boost Immunizations with a Virosomal and an Alphavirus Replicon Vaccine. Mol Pharm 2010; 8:65-77. [DOI: 10.1021/mp1002043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Walczak
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan de Mare
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Annelies Riezebos-Brilman
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joke Regts
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Baukje-Nynke Hoogeboom
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen T. Visser
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marc Fiedler
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pidder Jansen-Dürr
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ate G. J. van der Zee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans W. Nijman
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Wilschut
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Toos Daemen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria, and Department of Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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