Atomised intranasal dexmedetomidine versus oral melatonin in prevention of emergence delirium in children undergoing ophthalmic surgery with sevoflurane: A randomised double-blind study

Investigating the Effect of Dexmedetomidine in Controlling Postoperative Emergence Agitation in Children under Sevoflurane Anesthesia

Introduction

Emergence agitation (EA) is one of the common problems during recovery from general anesthesia, especially in children. In this study, we investigated the effect of dexmedetomidine on the control of agitation after anesthesia with sevoflurane in children.

Method

This randomized control-placebo, double-blind prospective clinical trial was conducted on seventy-six children between 2 and 7 years with ASA (American Society of Anesthesiologists) class I who were candidates for elective adenoidectomy surgery and tonsillectomy. Participants were selected by an available sampling method. Patients were randomly placed in one of the two groups D (dexmedetomidine 0.5 μg/kg infusion within ten minutes) or P (placebo: normal saline infusion within ten minutes). A four-point scale evaluated agitation. Pain evaluation was done by FLACC (faces, legs, activity, cry, and consolability). The statistical software was SPSS version 23. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

The level of agitation was significantly lower in the intervention group (P < 0.05), except after 40 minutes in the PACU (Post Anesthesia Care Unit) (P=1.00). Patients in the control group experienced high pain scores when admitted at PACU, 10, 20, and 30 minutes after admission at PACU (P < 0.05). Pethidine and metoclopramide prescriptions in the intervention group were lower than in the control group (P < 0.05). Shivering occurred in five patients in the intervention group and nine in the control groups (P=0.032). Hypotension that required intervention occurred in 3 patients in the intervention group and one in the control group (P=0.024).

Conclusion

Our trial demonstrated that the prescription of 0.5 μg/kg of dexmedetomidine within ten minutes after intubation significantly reduced the EA frequency, pain severity, analgesic consumption, and PONV (postoperative nausea and vomiting). However, it caused delays in the emergence from anesthesia. This trial is registered with IRCT20160430027677N14.

Intravenous MELAtonin for prevention of Postoperative Agitation and Emergence Delirium in children (MELA-PAED): A protocol and statistical analysis plan for a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Emergence agitation and delirium in children remain a common clinical challenge in the post-anesthetic care unit. Preoperative oral melatonin has been suggested as an effective preventive drug with a favorable safety profile. The oral bioavailability of melatonin, however, is low. Therefore, the MELA-PAED trial aims to investigate the efficacy and safety of intraoperative intravenous melatonin for the prevention of emergence agitation in pediatric surgical patients.

METHODS

MELA-PAED is a randomized, double-blind, parallel two-arm, multi-center, superiority trial comparing intravenous melatonin with placebo. Four hundred participants aged 1-6 years will be randomized 1:1 to either the intervention or placebo. The intervention consists of intravenous melatonin 0.15 mg/kg administered approximately 30 min before the end of surgery. Participants will be monitored in the post-anesthetic care unit (PACU), and the Post Hospitalization Behavior Questionnaire for Ambulatory Surgery (PHBQ-AS) will be performed on days 1, 7, and 14 after the intervention. Serious Adverse Events (SAE) will be assessed up to 30 days after the intervention.

RESULTS

The primary outcome is the incidence of emergence agitation, assessed dichotomously as any Watcha score >2 during the participant's stay in the post-anesthetic care unit. Secondary outcomes are opioid consumption in the post-anesthetic care unit and adverse events. Exploratory outcomes include SAEs, postoperative pain, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and time to awakening, to first oral intake, and to discharge readiness.

CONCLUSION

The MELA-PAED trial investigates the efficacy of intravenous intraoperative melatonin for the prevention of emergence agitation in pediatric surgical patients. Results may provide further knowledge concerning the use of melatonin in pediatric perioperative care.

The nuts and bolts of multimodal anaesthesia in the 21st century: a primer for clinicians

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review article explores the application of multimodal anaesthesia in general anaesthesia, particularly in conjunction with locoregional anaesthesia, specifically focusing on the importance of EEG monitoring. We provide an evidence-based guide for implementing multimodal anaesthesia, encompassing drug combinations, dosages, and EEG monitoring techniques, to ensure reliable intraoperative anaesthesia while minimizing adverse effects and improving patient outcomes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Opioid-free and multimodal general anaesthesia have significantly reduced opioid addiction and chronic postoperative pain. However, the evidence supporting the effectiveness of these approaches is limited. This review attempts to integrate research from broader neuroscientific fields to generate new clinical hypotheses. It discusses the correlation between high-dose intraoperative opioids and increased postoperative opioid consumption and their impact on pain indices and readmission rates. Additionally, it explores the relationship between multimodal anaesthesia and pain processing models and investigates the potential effects of nonpharmacological interventions on preoperative anxiety and postoperative pain.

SUMMARY

The integration of EEG monitoring is crucial for guiding adequate multimodal anaesthesia and preventing excessive anaesthesia dosing. Furthermore, the review investigates the impact of combining regional and opioid-sparing general anaesthesia on perioperative EEG readings and anaesthetic depth. The findings have significant implications for clinical practice in optimizing multimodal anaesthesia techniques (Supplementary Digital Content 1: Video Abstract, http://links.lww.com/COAN/A96 ).

Melatonin or its analogs as premedication to prevent emergence agitation in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Emergence agitation (EA) is a prevalent complication in children following general anesthesia. Several studies have assessed the relationship between melatonin or its analogs and the incidence of pediatric EA, yielding conflicting results. This meta-analysis aims to assess the effects of premedication with melatonin or its analogs on preventing EA in children after general anesthesia.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, Web of Science, CNKI, Wanfang Data, clinicaltrials.gov, and WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform were searched until 25 November 2022. We included randomized controlled trials that assessed EA in patients less than 18 years old who underwent general anesthesia. We excluded studies that did not use a specific evaluation to assess EA.

RESULTS

Nine studies (951 participants) were included in this systematic review. Melatonin significantly reduced the incidence of EA compared with placebos (risk ratio 0.40, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.61, P < 0.01) and midazolam (risk ratio 0.48, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.73, P < 0.01). Dexmedetomidine remarkably decreased the incidence of EA compared with melatonin (risk ratio 2.04, 95% CI 1.11 to 3.73, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Melatonin premedication significantly decreases the incidence of EA compared with placebos and midazolam. Dexmedetomidine premedication has a stronger effect than melatonin in preventing EA. Nevertheless, further studies are warranted to reinforce and validate the conclusion on the efficacy of melatonin premedication in mitigating EA in pediatric patients.

The Effect of Intranasal Dexmedetomidine on Emergence Delirium Prevention in Pediatric Ambulatory Dental Rehabilitation Under General Anesthesia: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Purpose

Sevoflurane is the preferred anesthetic agent for induction and maintenance of ambulatory surgery due to its property of fast onset and recovery. However, it has been recognized as one of the major contributors of emergence delirium. The aim of this study was to evaluate the preventive effect of intranasal dexmedetomidine on the occurrence of emergence delirium in pediatric patients under general anesthesia with sevoflurane.

Patients and Methods

Ninety pediatric patients undergoing dental rehabilitation under sevoflurane anesthesia were enrolled in this study. The patients were divided into three groups (n=30 each in the 2 μg/kg dexmedetomidine, 1 μg/kg dexmedetomidine, and control with saline groups). The same volume (0.02mL/kg) of the mixed solution was dropped into the nasal cavity of the children 30 minutes before surgery. We used the Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium Scale (PAED) to assess the level and incidence of delirium in the post-anesthesia care unit.

Results

Compared with the control group, prophylactic use of different dosages of intranasal dexmedetomidine significantly reduces the incidence of ED and severe ED in PACU (P<0.001). Intranasal administration of 2 μg/kg dexmedetomidine was associated with a better acceptance of mask induction and a better tolerance of separation with parents.

Conclusion

Both 2 μg/kg and 1 μg/kg intranasal dexmedetomidine can achieve ED preventive effects in PACU in dental rehabilitation under general anesthesia. A dosage of 2 μg/kg is more effective in preventing severe ED and providing better mask acceptance.

Prevalence and risk factors of emergence agitation among pediatric patients undergo ophthalmic and ENT Surgery: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Some studies reported that pediatric patients undergoing otorhinolaryngology (ENT) and ophthalmic surgeries have higher incidences of emergence agitation (EA). Children with EA tend to carry the risk of self-harm, have longer periods of recovery and delayed hospital discharge. Consequently, EA needs to be monitored and risk factors ought to be emphasized to implement preventative measures. The objective of this study was to describe EA and to identify risk factors after pediatric ophthalmic or ENT surgery.

METHODS

Between September 2021 and December 2021, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 100 children aged of 0-12 years who underwent ophthalmic or ENT surgery. The Watcha scale was used to observe and record EA, which was defined at levels of 3 or 4 at any time in the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU). The pain intensity was graded with the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability (FLACC) Scale after surgery. Patient and surgery-related characteristics, the behavioral criteria of EA, the pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic interventions and recovery outcomes were objectively recorded. A binary logistic regression model was constructed to identify the associated factors of EA.

RESULTS

From the 100 analyzed children, 58 were males and 42 were females, and 44 patients received ophthalmic surgery and 56 ENT surgery. The median age was 6 (IQR 4-7) years. The overall incidence of EA among pediatrics was 30% (34.5% for ENT and 24.4% for ophthalmic surgery). High preoperative modified Yale Preoperative Anxiety scale (m-YPAS) grade (OR = 1.19, 95%CI 1.06-1.33, P = 0.003) and high postoperative FLACC score (OR = 3.36, 95%CI 1.88-6.02, P < 0.001) were risk factors for EA.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified that preoperative anxiety and postoperative pain are associated with EA in children after ophthalmic or ENT surgery. Preoperative anxiety assessment and management, and administration of adjunct analgesic treatments should be considered in the routine care.

A new view on old problems in paediatric anaesthesia: premedication, postoperative agitation and dosing

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review is to discuss recent developments in paediatric anaesthesia, which have evolved in an undulating fashion.

RECENT FINDINGS

The role and efficacy of pharmacological premedication is reevaluated. The anxiolytic and sedative properties of midazolam and α 2 -agonists have now been defined more precisely. Both classes of drugs have their unique profile, and there is no reason to condemn one or the other. Midazolam is an excellent anxiolytic, whereas dexmedetomidine is superior in the postoperative period and for sedation during diagnostic imaging.A total intravenous technique with propofol is often considered to be the standard for the prevention of emergence agitation; but alternatives do exist, such as a co-medication with dexmedetomidine or opioids. In clinical reality, a multimodal approach may often be advisable.The theoretical basis for propofol dosing has recently been adapted. In contrast to previous beliefs, the context-sensitive half-life of propofol seems to be quite short beyond the first year of life.

SUMMARY

Midazolam and dexmedetomidine are not interchangeable; each compound has its pros and cons. As an anxiolytic drug, midazolam indisputably deserves its place, whereas dexmedetomidine is a better sedative and particularly beneficial in the postoperative period. New data will allow more precise age-adapted dosing of propofol.