Interpretation of Combined Hair Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters, Cocaine and Cocaethylene

Emerging biomarkers of intrauterine neonatal and pediatric exposures to xenobiotics

Biomarkers are an important tool for clinicians to detect long-term exposure to a multitude of compounds, including drugs of abuse, alcohol, and environmental toxicants. Using hair and meconium as matrices for biomarker testing provides a longer window of detection than that of blood or urine, providing clinically relevant information on prenatal exposures. The use of biomarkers can aid clinicians in early diagnosis and implementing appropriate interventions. The increasing burden of environmental toxicants has warranted the development of biomarkers for specific compounds, which could decrease exposure in humans.