A speckle tracking echocardiographic study on right ventricular function in primary aldosteronism

Predicting hospitalization by TAPSE/SPAP and the role of spironolactone in asymptomatic heart failure patients

Aim: To appraise the prediction of tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE)/systolic pulmonary artery pressure (SPAP) with regard to hospitalization and the effect of spironolactone use. Materials & methods: A total of 245 patients were evaluated for the study. Patients were followed for 1 year and cardiovascular outcomes were determined. Results: It was determined that TAPSE/SPAP was an independent predictor of hospitalization. A 0.1-mmHg decrease in TAPSE/SPAP was associated with a 9% increase in relative risk. No event was observed above the 0.47 level. Negative correlation with TAPSE (uncoupling) began in the spironolactone group when SPAP was ≥43 and in nonusers when SPAP was 38 (Pearson's correlation coefficient: -,731 vs -,383; p < 0.001 vs p = 0.037). Conclusion: TAPSE/SPAP measurement may be useful in predicting 1-year hospitalization in asymptomatic heart failure patients. This ratio was also found to be higher in patients who used spironolactone.

Role of α1-blockers in the current management of hypertension

There is emerging evidence that α1-blockers can be safely used in the treatment of hypertension. These drugs can be used in almost all hypertensive patients for blood pressure control. However, there are several special indications. Benign prostatic hyperplasia is a compelling indication of α1-blockers, because of the dual treatment effect on both high blood pressure and lower urinary tract symptoms. Many patients with resistant hypertension would require α1-blockers as add-on therapy. Primary aldosteronism screen is a rapidly increasing clinical demand in the management of hypertension, where α1-blockers are useful for blood pressure control in the preparation for the measurement of plasma aldosterone and renin. Nonetheless, α1-blockers have to be used under several considerations. Among the currently available agents, only long-acting α1-blockers, such as doxazosin gastrointestinal therapeutic system 4-8 mg daily and terazosin 2-4 mg daily, should be chosen. Orthostatic hypotension is a concern with the use of α1-blockers especially in the elderly, and requires careful initial bedtime dosing and avoiding overdosing. Fluid retention is potentially also a concern, which may be overcome by combining an α1-blocker with a diuretic.

Impact of Primary Aldosteronism in Resistant Hypertension

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this narrative review, we aim to summarize the latest data on the association between primary aldosteronism and resistant hypertension, as well as to emphasize the necessity for screening for primary aldosteronism all patients with resistant hypertension.

RECENT FINDINGS

Epidemiological data suggests that up to one out of five patients with resistant hypertension suffer from primary aldosteronism. Patients with primary aldosteronism have increased incidence of renal disease, diabetes mellitus, atrial fibrillation, and obstructive sleep apnea, as well as they are characterized by an extended target organ damage and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Specific treatments for primary hyperaldosteronism (adrenalectomy and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists) have significant impact on blood pressure, can reverse target organ damage, and mitigate cardiovascular risk. All patients with resistant hypertension should be evaluated for primary aldosteronism. Patients diagnosed with the disease may further undergo lateralization with adrenal vein sampling in order to receive the optimal therapeutic option which results in significant improvements in quality of life and cardiovascular profile.

Strain Imaging for the Early Detection of Cardiac Remodeling and Dysfunction in Primary Aldosteronism

Speckle tracking echocardiography is a novel technique to quantify cardiac function and deformation. It has been applied in a series of cardiovascular diseases for the evaluation of early cardiac impairment. We recently used this technique to investigate cardiac structure and function in patients with primary aldosteronism. Cardiac damage usually occurs earlier in patients with primary aldosteronism than those with primary hypertension, probably because aldosterone hypersecretion is more commonly observed in the former than the latter patients. In this article, we will review the imaging studies, especially with speckle tracking echocardiography, for the detection of early cardiac dysfunction in primary aldosteronism as a disease model.

Cerebro-Cardiovascular Risk, Target Organ Damage, and Treatment Outcomes in Primary Aldosteronism

Primary aldosteronism (PA) is the most common type of endocrine hypertension, and numerous experimental and clinical evidence have verified that prolonged exposure to excess aldosterone is responsible for an increased risk of cerebro-cardiovascular events and target organ damage (TOD) in patients with PA. Therefore, focusing on restoring the toxic effects of excess aldosterone on the target organs is very important to reduce cerebro-cardiovascular events. Current evidence convincingly demonstrates that both surgical and medical treatment strategies would benefit cerebro-cardiovascular outcomes and mortality in the long term. Understanding cerebro-cardiovascular risk in PA would help clinical doctors to achieve both early diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, in this review, we will summarize the cerebro-cardiovascular risk in PA, focusing on the TOD of aldosterone, including brain, heart, vascular system, renal, adipose tissues, diabetes, and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Furthermore, the various treatment outcomes of adrenalectomy and medical treatment for patients with PA will also be discussed. We hope this knowledge will help improve cerebro-cardiovascular prognosis and reduce the incidence and mortality of cerebro-cardiovascular events in patients with PA.

Mineralocorticoid receptors in pulmonary hypertension and right heart failure: From molecular biology to therapeutic targeting

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a devastating condition characterized by pulmonary vascular remodelling, leading to progressive increase in pulmonary artery pressure and subsequent right ventricular failure. Aldosterone and the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a nuclear transcription factor, are key drivers of cardiovascular disease and MR antagonists are well-established in heart failure. Now, a growing body of evidence points at a detrimental role of MR in PH. Pharmacological MR blockade attenuated PH and prevented RV failure in experimental models. Mouse models with cell selective MR deletion suggest that this effect is mediated by MR in endothelial cells. While the evidence from experimental studies appears convincing, the available clinical data on MR antagonist use in patients with PH is more controversial. Integrated analysis of clinical data together with MR-dependent molecular alterations may provide insights why some patients respond to MRA treatment while others do not. Potential ways to identify MRA 'responders' include the analysis of underlying PH causes, stage of disease, or sex, as well as new biomarkers.

A non-invasive left ventricular pressure-strain loop study on myocardial work in primary aldosteronism

We investigated the myocardial work derived from left ventricular pressure-strain loop in patients with primary aldosteronism or primary hypertension. We enrolled 50 patients with primary aldosteronism, 50 age- and sex-matched patients with primary hypertension, and 25 normotensive control subjects. We performed transthoracic echocardiography and speckle-tracking echocardiography-based left ventricular pressure-strain loop analysis to evaluate cardiac structure and function. Patients with primary aldosteronism and those with primary hypertension had similar clinic and ambulatory blood pressures, except that the former had a significantly (P = 0.03) higher nighttime systolic blood pressure. All subjects had normal left ventricular ejection fraction (66.4 ± 4.7%). Patients with primary aldosteronism had a greater left ventricular mass index than those with primary hypertension and the normal controls (111.0 ± 21.6 g/m² versus 95.7 ± 17.7 and 77.9 ± 13.5 g/m², respectively, P < 0.001). The global myocardial work index (GWI, 2336 ± 333, 2366 ± 288, and 2292 ± 249 mmHg%, respectively), and global constructive work (GCW, 2494 ± 325, 2524 ± 301, and 2391 ± 193 mmHg%, respectively), were comparable in the three groups (P ≥ 0.18). However, the global work efficiency (GWE) differed significantly (P < 0.001), being lowest in primary aldosteronism (91.1 ± 2.7%), intermediate in primary hypertension (93.5 ± 2.5%) and highest in controls (95.3 ± 1.5%). The opposite was true for the global wasted work (GWW) (205.6 ± 74.6, 142.0 ± 56.4 and 99.4 ± 33.7 mmHg%, respectively, P < 0.001). GWE was significantly correlated with the logarithmically transformed plasma concentration and the urinary excretion of aldosterone in patients with primary aldosteronism or primary hypertension (r = -0.43 for both, P < 0.001). The associations remained statistically significant (P ≤ 0.04) after further adjustment for several factors, including left ventricular mass index and clinic or nighttime blood pressure. In conclusion, GWE decreased and GWW increased in primary hypertension and further in primary aldosteronism, probably because of the adrenal aldosterone hypersecretion and the left ventricular mass index increase, while GWI and GCW were similar, indicating that similar and normalized total myocardial work might be a compensation in hypertension at the expense of work efficiency.