Trajectories of Sleep and Its Predictors in the First Year Following Traumatic Brain Injury

Sleep-Wake Disorders Among Older Adults Following Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) are increasingly common in older adults and represent a substantial source of morbidity and mortality for this population. In addition to the impact from the primary insult, TBI can lead to a variety of chronic neurocognitive conditions including dementia, depression, and sleep disturbances. When caused by TBI, these conditions differ importantly from their non-TBI-related counterparts. Much about how TBI relates to the development of these conditions is unknown, and more research is needed to further elucidate optimal treatment strategies.

Actigraphic and nursing sleep log measures in moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury: Identifying discrepancies in total sleep time

BACKGROUND

Sleep disturbances are common in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). In an inpatient rehabilitation setting, clinicians often use information from sleep logs filled out by trained nurses to identify and treat sleep disturbances. However, there are limited data related to accuracy of sleep logs, and patient-reported sleep diaries are poor predictors of total sleep time, which raises concern about the accuracy of sleep logs filled out by a third party.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the reliability of sleep logs for participants with TBI by comparing total sleep time determined by sleep logs versus actigraphy.

DESIGN

Prospective, cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Free-standing, academic inpatient rehabilitation facility.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirty individuals (n = 30) participated in the study. Inclusion criteria were (1) diagnosis of moderate-to-severe TBI; (2) age ≥ 18 years at the time of TBI; and (3) participating in inpatient rehabilitation with no prior inpatient rehabilitation admissions.

INTERVENTIONS

Actigraph monitoring using ActiGraph GT9X Link devices was initiated within 72 hours of admission and continued for 7 consecutive days. Sleep logs were concurrently filled out by trained nurses.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Sleep parameter correspondence between actigraphy and sleep logs in moderate-to-severe TBI.

RESULTS

Only 51.4% of participants' sleep logs and actigraph total sleep time measurements were within 1 hour of each other, and only 23.8% were within 30 minutes. On average, sleep logs overestimated actigraphy-determined total sleep time by 60 minutes compared to actigraphic measurement.

CONCLUSIONS

For those with moderate-to-severe TBI undergoing inpatient rehabilitation, sleep logs are poor predictors of sleep time because they overestimate total sleep time compared to actigraphy. Therefore, clinicians should use caution when using sleep log data to make decisions regarding treatment for sleep disturbances in TBI.

Hospital Environmental Effects on Sleep in Adults With Traumatic Brain Injury in Rehabilitation

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to describe sleep patterns of adults with traumatic brain injury and examine effects of environmental stressors (patient care activities and light) on patterns of sleep.

DESIGN

A descriptive, correlational, explanatory design was used for this study.

METHODS

Sixty-three subjects with traumatic brain injury (>18 years) on an acute traumatic brain injury rehabilitation unit wore an Actiwatch for 48 hours to collect light and sleep data. Patient care activity data were collected between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m.

FINDINGS

Patient care activities and light occurred between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m. Nighttime sleep duration and sleep efficiency were explained by patient care activities, whereas light explained wake time after sleep onset.

CONCLUSION

Patient care activities and light serve as environmental stressors that affect sleep.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results necessitate examining the need and timing of nursing care activities and light during nighttime. Findings provide a basis for policy changes that optimize sleep.

Subacute sleep disturbance in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review

Objective: This systematic review evaluated subacute sleep disturbance following moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the impact of secondary factors such as mood or pain.Methods: A comprehensive search strategy was applied to nine databases. Inclusion criteria included: adults ≥18 years, moderate and severe TBI and within 3 months of injury. Eligible studies were critically appraised using the McMaster Quantitative Critical Review Form. Study characteristics, outcomes, and methodological quality were synthesized. This systematic review was registered with PROSPERO (Registration number: CRD42018087799).Results: Ten studies were included. Research identified early-onset sleep disturbances; characterized as fragmented sleep periods and difficulty initiating sleep. Alterations to sleep architecture (e.g. rapid eye movement sleep) were reported. Sleep disturbance appears to associate with alterations of consciousness. Sleep disturbance tended to be particularly increased during the phase of post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) (78.7%).Conclusions: There is a limited amount of research available, which has inherent measurement and sample size limitations. The gold standard for measuring sleep (polysomnography) was rarely utilized, which may affect the detection of sleep disturbance and sleep architecture. Secondary factors potentially influencing sleep were generally not reported. Further evaluation on associations between sleep and PTA is needed.

Injury, Sleep, and Functional Outcome in Hospital Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury

PROBLEM

Uninterrupted nighttime sleep is associated with better cognition and functional outcomes in healthy adults, but the relationship between sleep and functional outcome in individuals hospitalized with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains to be clarified.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to (1) describe nighttime rest-activity variables-wake bouts (counts), total wake time (minutes), and sleep efficiency (SE) (percentage; time asleep/time in bed)-in people on a neuroscience step-down unit (NSDU) post-TBI and (2) describe the association between injury and nighttime rest-activity on post-TBI functional outcome (using Functional Independence Measure [FIM] at discharge from inpatient care).

METHODS

This study is a cross-sectional, descriptive pilot study. We recruited participants from the NSDU (n = 17 [age: mean (SD), 63.4 (17.9)]; 82% male, 94% white) who wore wrist actigraphy (source of nighttime rest-activity variables) for up to 5 nights. For injury variables, we used Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score and Injury Severity Score (ISS). We used Spearman ρ and regression to measure associations.

RESULTS

Glasgow Coma Scale mean (SD) score was 8.8 (4.9), ISS mean (SD) score was 23.6 (6.7), and FIM mean (SD) score was 48 (14.5). Averages of nighttime rest-activity variables (8 PM-7 AM) were as follows: SE, 73% (SD, 16); wake bouts, 41 counts (SD, 18); total wake time, 74 minutes (SD, 47). Correlations showed significance between FIM and GCS (P = .005) and between SE and GCS (P = .015). GCS was the only statistically significant variable associated with FIM (P = .013); we eliminated other variables from the model as nonsignificant (P > .10). Sleep efficiency and FIM association was nonsignificant (P = .40). In a separate model (ISS, GCS, and SE [dependent variable]), GCS was significant (P = .04), but ISS was not (P = .25).

CONCLUSION

Patients with severe TBI on the NSDU have poor actigraphic sleep at night. GCS has a stronger association to functional outcome than nighttime rest-activity variables.

The interplay between neuroendocrine and sleep alterations following traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND

Sleep and endocrine disruptions are prevalent after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and are likely to contribute to morbidity.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the interaction between sleep and hormonal regulation following TBI and elucidate the impact that alterations of these systems have on cognitive responses during the posttraumatic chronic period.

METHODS

Review of preclinical and clinical literature describing long-lasting endocrine dysregulation and sleep alterations following TBI. The bidirectional relationship between sleep and hormones is described. Literature describing co-occurrence between sleep-wake disturbances and hormonal dysregulation will be presented. Review of literature describing cognitive effects of seep and hormones. The cognitive and functional impact of sleep disturbances and hormonal dysregulation is discussed within the context of TBI.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Sleep and hormonal alterations impact cognitive and functional outcome after TBI. Diagnosis and treatment of these disturbances will impact recovery following TBI and should be considered in the post-acute rehabilitative setting.

A Qualitative Study of Sleep-Wake Disturbance Among Veterans With Post-Acute Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVE

Examine sleep-wake disturbance (SWD) characteristics, factors, consequences, and management strategies from the perspective of veterans with chronic stage, moderate/severe traumatic brain injury (TBI).

SETTING

VA Medical Center, Rocky Mountain.

US PARTICIPANTS

Nineteen male veterans with post-acute TBI and SWD in the VA Health Administration.

DESIGN

Qualitative descriptive.

MEASURES

Semistructured interviews, Ohio State University TBI-Identification Method, Insomnia Severity Index.

RESULTS

Two main dimensions emerged: "Messed up sleep" and Surviving and Managing SWD. Sleep-wake disturbance has long-term multidimensional features, etiology, consequences, and practice implications. Although SWD may not be consistently discussed with providers, the problem appears to be pervasive in many aspects of the lives of the informants. Difficulty falling asleep, frequent awakenings, and poor sleep quality were common symptoms that were described as intrusive, isolating, and difficult to self-manage. Veterans discussed a host of physical symptoms, mental health issues, environmental, and behavioral factors that contributed to SWD. Medications, sleep apnea treatment, and self-imposed isolation were frequent management strategies. Veterans expressed a willingness to try new approaches and work with providers.

CONCLUSION

Sleep-wake disturbance among veterans with chronic stage TBI is a multidimensional phenomenon with interplay between comorbidities, contributing factors, effects on functioning, and sleep management strategies. Implications for practice include early and routine evaluation, monitoring, and treatment of SWD. Research is needed to test interventions that address SWD and common TBI comorbidities.

Alterations in Daytime and Nighttime Activity in Piglets after Focal and Diffuse Brain Injury

We have developed and implemented a noninvasive, objective neurofunctional assessment for evaluating the sustained effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in piglets with both diffuse and focal injury types. Derived from commercial actigraphy methods in humans, this assessment continuously monitors the day/night activity of piglets using close-fitting jackets equipped with tri-axial accelerometers to monitor movements of the thorax. Acceleration metrics were correlated (N = 7 naïve piglets) with video images to define values associated with a range of activities, from recumbancy (rest) to running. Both focal (N = 8) and diffuse brain injury (N = 9) produced alterations in activity that were significant 4 days post-TBI. Compared to shams (N = 6) who acclimated to the animal facility 4 days after an anesthesia experience by blurring the distinction between day and night activity, post-TBI time-matched animals had larger fractions of inactive periods during the daytime than nighttime, and larger fractions of active time in the night were spent in high activity (e.g., constant walking, intermittent running) than during the day. These persistent disturbances in rest and activity are similar to those observed in human adults and children post-TBI, establishing actigraphy as a translational metric, used in both humans and large animals, for assessment of injury severity, progressions, and intervention.