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Bigini F, Lee SH, Sun YJ, Sun Y, Mahajan VB. Unleashing the potential of CRISPR multiplexing: Harnessing Cas12 and Cas13 for precise gene modulation in eye diseases. Vision Res 2023; 213:108317. [PMID: 37722240 PMCID: PMC10685911 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Gene therapy is a flourishing field with the potential to revolutionize the treatment of genetic diseases. The emergence of CRISPR-Cas9 has significantly advanced targeted and efficient genome editing. Although CRISPR-Cas9 has demonstrated promising potential applications in various genetic disorders, it faces limitations in simultaneously targeting multiple genes. Novel CRISPR systems, such as Cas12 and Cas13, have been developed to overcome these challenges, enabling multiplexing and providing unique advantages. Cas13, in particular, targets mRNA instead of genomic DNA, permitting precise gene expression control and mitigating off-target effects. This review investigates the potential of Cas12 and Cas13 in ocular gene therapy applications, such as suppression of inflammation and cell death. In addition, the capabilities of Cas12 and Cas13 are explored in addressing potential targets related with disease mechanisms such as aberrant isoforms, mitochondrial genes, cis-regulatory sequences, modifier genes, and long non-coding RNAs. Anatomical accessibility and relative immune privilege of the eye provide an ideal organ system for evaluating these novel techniques' efficacy and safety. By targeting multiple genes concurrently, CRISPR-Cas12 and Cas13 systems hold promise for treating a range of ocular disorders, including glaucoma, retinal dystrophies, and age-related macular degeneration. Nonetheless, additional refinement is required to ascertain the safety and efficacy of these approaches in ocular disease treatments. Thus, the development of Cas12 and Cas13 systems marks a significant advancement in gene therapy, offering the potential to devise effective treatments for ocular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Bigini
- Molecular Surgery Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Soo Hyeon Lee
- Molecular Surgery Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Young Joo Sun
- Molecular Surgery Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Yang Sun
- Molecular Surgery Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; Stanford Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Vinit B Mahajan
- Molecular Surgery Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
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2
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Knockout of Anopheles stephensi immune gene LRIM1 by CRISPR-Cas9 reveals its unexpected role in reproduction and vector competence. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009770. [PMID: 34784388 PMCID: PMC8631644 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PfSPZ Vaccine against malaria is composed of Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites (SPZ) manufactured using aseptically reared Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Immune response genes of Anopheles mosquitoes such as Leucin-Rich protein (LRIM1), inhibit Plasmodium SPZ development (sporogony) in mosquitoes by supporting melanization and phagocytosis of ookinetes. With the aim of increasing PfSPZ infection intensities, we generated an A. stephensi LRIM1 knockout line, Δaslrim1, by embryonic genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9. Δaslrim1 mosquitoes had a significantly increased midgut bacterial load and an altered microbiome composition, including elimination of commensal acetic acid bacteria. The alterations in the microbiome caused increased mosquito mortality and unexpectedly, significantly reduced sporogony. The survival rate of Δaslrim1 mosquitoes and their ability to support PfSPZ development, were partially restored by antibiotic treatment of the mosquitoes, and fully restored to baseline when Δaslrim1 mosquitoes were produced aseptically. Deletion of LRIM1 also affected reproductive capacity: oviposition, fecundity and male fertility were significantly compromised. Attenuation in fecundity was not associated with the altered microbiome. This work demonstrates that LRIM1's regulation of the microbiome has a major impact on vector competence and longevity of A. stephensi. Additionally, LRIM1 deletion identified an unexpected role for this gene in fecundity and reduction of sperm transfer by males.
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Pattan V, Kashyap R, Bansal V, Candula N, Koritala T, Surani S. Genomics in medicine: A new era in medicine. World J Methodol 2021; 11:231-242. [PMID: 34631481 PMCID: PMC8472545 DOI: 10.5662/wjm.v11.i5.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The sequencing of complete human genome revolutionized the genomic medicine. However, the complex interplay of gene-environment-lifestyle and influence of non-coding genomic regions on human health remain largely unexplored. Genomic medicine has great potential for diagnoses or disease prediction, disease prevention and, targeted treatment. However, many of the promising tools of genomic medicine are still in their infancy and their application may be limited because of the limited knowledge we have that precludes its use in many clinical settings. In this review article, we have reviewed the evolution of genomic methodologies/tools, their limitations, and scope, for current and future clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishwanath Pattan
- Division of Endocrinology, Wyoming Medical Center, Casper, WY 82601, United States
| | - Rahul Kashyap
- Department of Anesthesiology and Peri-operative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, United States
| | - Vikas Bansal
- Department of Anesthesiology and Peri-operative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, United States
| | - Narsimha Candula
- Hospital Medicine, University Florida Health, Jacksonville, FL 32209, United States
| | - Thoyaja Koritala
- Hospital Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, Mankato, MN 56001, United States
| | - Salim Surani
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX 78405, United States
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Meng D, Ragi SD, Tsang SH. Therapy in Rhodopsin-Mediated Autosomal Dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa. Mol Ther 2020; 28:2139-2149. [PMID: 32882181 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodopsin-mediated autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (RHO-adRP) is a hereditary degenerative disorder in which mutations in the gene encoding RHO, the light-sensitive G protein-coupled receptor involved in phototransduction in rods, lead to progressive loss of rods and subsequently cones in the retina. Clinical phenotypes are diverse, ranging from mild night blindness to severe visual impairments. There is currently no cure for RHO-adRP. Although there have been significant advances in gene therapy for inherited retinal diseases, treating RHO-adRP presents a unique challenge since it is an autosomal dominant disease caused by more than 150 gain-of-function mutations in the RHO gene, rendering the established gene supplementation strategy inadequate. This review provides an update on RNA therapeutics and therapeutic editing genome surgery strategies and ongoing clinical trials for RHO-adRP, discussing mechanisms of action, preclinical data, current state of development, as well as risk and benefit considerations. Potential outcome measures useful for future clinical trials are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Meng
- Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sara D Ragi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Stephen H Tsang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Liu Z, Liao Z, Chen Y, Han L, Yin Q, Xiao H. Application of Various Delivery Methods for CRISPR/dCas9. Mol Biotechnol 2020; 62:355-363. [PMID: 32583364 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-020-00258-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As gene-editing technology has become more and more popular in the life sciences, CRISPR has brought good news to scientific researchers because of its efficiency, convenience, and wide application. Its wide application has also promoted the development of basic scientific research, agriculture, basic medicine, and clinical treatment. However, how the CRISPR/dCas9 system is effectively delivered to the target organs or cells is still unknown. This paper briefly introduces the CRISPR/dCas9 system and then lists some common delivery methods and their characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixi Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 55, Section 4, South Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China
- Sichuan Translational Medicine Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhi Liao
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 55, Section 4, South Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Lizhu Han
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China
- Sichuan Translational Medicine Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Qinan Yin
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China
- Sichuan Translational Medicine Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongtao Xiao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 55, Section 4, South Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China.
- Sichuan Translational Medicine Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China.
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The retina revolution: signaling pathway therapies, genetic therapies, mitochondrial therapies, artificial intelligence. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2020; 31:207-214. [PMID: 32205471 DOI: 10.1097/icu.0000000000000656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The aim of this article is to review and discuss the history, current state, and future implications of promising biomedical offerings in the field of retina. RECENT FINDINGS The technologies discussed are some of the more recent promising biomedical developments within the field of retina. There is a US Food and Drug Administration-approved gene therapy product and artificial intelligence device for retina, with many other offerings in the pipeline. SUMMARY Signaling pathway therapies, genetic therapies, mitochondrial therapies, and artificial intelligence have shaped retina care as we know it and are poised to further impact the future of retina care. Retina specialists have the privilege and responsibility of shaping this future for the visual health of current and future generations.
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Wert KJ, Koch SF, Velez G, Hsu CW, Mahajan M, Bassuk AG, Tsang SH, Mahajan VB. CAPN5 genetic inactivation phenotype supports therapeutic inhibition trials. Hum Mutat 2019; 40:2377-2392. [PMID: 31403230 DOI: 10.1002/humu.23894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Small molecule pharmacological inhibition of dominant human genetic disease is a feasible treatment that does not rely on the development of individual, patient-specific gene therapy vectors. However, the consequences of protein inhibition as a clinical therapeutic are not well-studied. In advance of human therapeutic trials for CAPN5 vitreoretinopathy, genetic inactivation can be used to infer the effect of protein inhibition in vivo. We created a photoreceptor-specific knockout (KO) mouse for Capn5 and compared the retinal phenotype to both wild-type and an existing Capn5 KO mouse model. In humans, CAPN5 loss-of-function (LOF) gene variants were ascertained in large exome databases from 60,706 unrelated subjects without severe disease phenotypes. Ocular examination of the retina of Capn5 KO mice by histology and electroretinography showed no significant abnormalities. In humans, there were 22 LOF CAPN5 variants located throughout the gene and in all major protein domains. Structural modeling of coding variants showed these LOF variants were nearby known disease-causing variants within the proteolytic core and in regions of high homology between human CAPN5 and 150 homologs, yet the LOF of CAPN5 was tolerated as opposed to gain-of-function disease-causing variants. These results indicate that localized inhibition of CAPN5 is a viable strategy for hyperactivating disease alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine J Wert
- Omics Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
| | - Susanne F Koch
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximillian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Gabriel Velez
- Omics Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.,Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Chun-Wei Hsu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York.,Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology, and Cell Biology, Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard and Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, Institute of Human Nutrition, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative (CSCI), Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - MaryAnn Mahajan
- Omics Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
| | | | - Stephen H Tsang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York.,Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology, and Cell Biology, Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard and Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, Institute of Human Nutrition, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative (CSCI), Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Vinit B Mahajan
- Omics Laboratory, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.,Department of Ophthalmology, Veterans Affairs, Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
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Attenuation of Inherited and Acquired Retinal Degeneration Progression with Gene-based Techniques. Mol Diagn Ther 2019; 23:113-120. [PMID: 30569401 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-018-0377-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inherited retinal dystrophies cause progressive vision loss and are major contributors to blindness worldwide. Advances in gene therapy have brought molecular approaches into the realm of clinical trials for these incurable illnesses. Select phase I, II and III trials are complete and provide some promise in terms of functional outcomes and safety, although questions do remain over the durability of their effects and the prevalence of inflammatory reactions. This article reviews gene therapy as it can be applied to inherited retinal dystrophies, provides an update of results from recent clinical trials, and discusses the future prospects of gene therapy and genome surgery.
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Wood EH, Tang PH, De la Huerta I, Korot E, Muscat S, Palanker DA, Williams GA. STEM CELL THERAPIES, GENE-BASED THERAPIES, OPTOGENETICS, AND RETINAL PROSTHETICS: Current State and Implications for the Future. Retina 2019; 39:820-835. [PMID: 30664120 PMCID: PMC6492547 DOI: 10.1097/iae.0000000000002449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To review and discuss current innovations and future implications of promising biotechnology and biomedical offerings in the field of retina. We focus on therapies that have already emerged as clinical offerings or are poised to do so. METHODS Literature review and commentary focusing on stem cell therapies, gene-based therapies, optogenetic therapies, and retinal prosthetic devices. RESULTS The technologies discussed herein are some of the more recent promising biotechnology and biomedical developments within the field of retina. Retinal prosthetic devices and gene-based therapies both have an FDA-approved product for ophthalmology, and many other offerings (including optogenetics) are in the pipeline. Stem cell therapies offer personalized medicine through novel regenerative mechanisms but entail complex ethical and reimbursement challenges. CONCLUSION Stem cell therapies, gene-based therapies, optogenetics, and retinal prosthetic devices represent a new era of biotechnological and biomedical progress. These bring new ethical, regulatory, care delivery, and reimbursement challenges. By addressing these issues proactively, we may accelerate delivery of care to patients in a safe, efficient, and value-based manner.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter H Tang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Edward Korot
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, Michigan
| | | | - Daniel A Palanker
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - George A Williams
- Associated Retinal Consultants, Royal Oak, Michigan
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, Michigan
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Zhang Y, Arango G, Li F, Xiao X, Putatunda R, Yu J, Yang XF, Wang H, Watson LT, Zhang L, Hu W. Comprehensive off-target analysis of dCas9-SAM-mediated HIV reactivation via long noncoding RNA and mRNA profiling. BMC Med Genomics 2018; 11:78. [PMID: 30200981 PMCID: PMC6131778 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-018-0394-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background CRISPR/CAS9 (epi)genome editing revolutionized the field of gene and cell therapy. Our previous study demonstrated that a rapid and robust reactivation of the HIV latent reservoir by a catalytically-deficient Cas9 (dCas9)-synergistic activation mediator (SAM) via HIV long terminal repeat (LTR)-specific MS2-mediated single guide RNAs (msgRNAs) directly induces cellular suicide without additional immunotherapy. However, potential off-target effect remains a concern for any clinical application of Cas9 genome editing and dCas9 epigenome editing. After dCas9 treatment, potential off-target responses have been analyzed through different strategies such as mRNA sequence analysis, and functional screening. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of the host transcriptome including mRNA, lncRNA, and alternative splicing was performed using human cell lines expressing dCas9-SAM and HIV-targeting msgRNAs. Results The control scrambled msgRNA (LTR_Zero), and two LTR-specific msgRNAs (LTR_L and LTR_O) groups show very similar expression profiles of the whole transcriptome. Among 839 identified lncRNAs, none exhibited significantly different expression in LTR_L vs. LTR_Zero group. In LTR_O group, only TERC and scaRNA2 lncRNAs were significantly decreased. Among 142,791 mRNAs, four genes were differentially expressed in LTR_L vs. LTR_Zero group. There were 21 genes significantly downregulated in LTR_O vs. either LTR_Zero or LTR_L group and one third of them are histone related. The distributions of different types of alternative splicing were very similar either within or between groups. There were no apparent changes in all the lncRNA and mRNA transcripts between the LTR_L and LTR_Zero groups. Conclusion This is an extremely comprehensive study demonstrating the rare off-target effects of the HIV-specific dCas9-SAM system in human cells. This finding is encouraging for the safe application of dCas9-SAM technology to induce target-specific reactivation of latent HIV for an effective “shock-and-kill” strategy. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12920-018-0394-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonggang Zhang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA.,Center for Stem Cell Research and Application, Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Chengdu, 610052, China
| | - Gustavo Arango
- Department of Computer Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Fang Li
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Raj Putatunda
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Jun Yu
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Xiao-Feng Yang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Hong Wang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Layne T Watson
- Department of Computer Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA.,Department of Mathematics, Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Liqing Zhang
- Department of Computer Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA.
| | - Wenhui Hu
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA. .,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA.
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