Development of a portable abdominal normothermic regional perfusion (A-NRP) program in the United States

A cost comparison of liver acquisition fees for donation after circulatory death versus donation after brain death donors

Donation after circulatory death (DCD) donors now represent over 30% of the deceased donor pool in the United States. Compared to donation after brain death, DCD is less likely to result in transplantation. For each potential donor whose organs cannot be utilized for transplantation (ie, dry run), fees are associated with the attempted donation, which add to the overall costs of organ acquisition. To better characterize the true costs of DCD liver acquisition, we performed a cost comparison of the fees associated with organ acquisition for DCD versus donation after brain death at a single transplant institute that comprises 2 liver transplant centers. Cost, recipient, and transportation data for all cases, including fees associated with liver acquisition from July 1, 2019, to October 31, 2021, were collected. We found that the total cost of DCD liver acquisition per liver transplant was $15,029 more than that for donation after brain death donation, with 18% of the costs of the DCD transplant attributed to dry runs. Overall, the costs associated with DCD transplantation accounted for 34.5% of the total organ acquisition costs; however, DCD transplantation accounted for 30.3% of the transplantation volume. Because the expansion of DCD is essential to increasing the availability of liver grafts for transplantation, strategies need to be implemented to decrease the costs associated with dry runs, including using local recovery, transferring donors to hospitals close to transplant centers, and performing more prerecovery organ analysis. Moreover, these strategies are needed to ensure that financial disincentives to DCD procurement and utilization do not reverse the gains made by expanding the organ donor pool using machine perfusion technologies.

Better liver transplant outcomes by donor interventions?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Donor risk factors and events surrounding donation impact the quantity and quality of grafts generated to meet liver transplant waitlist demands. Donor interventions represent an opportunity to mitigate injury and risk factors within donors themselves. The purpose of this review is to describe issues to address among donation after brain death, donation after circulatory determination of death, and living donors directly, for the sake of optimizing relevant outcomes among donors and recipients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies on donor management practices and high-level evidence supporting specific interventions are scarce. Nonetheless, for donation after brain death (DBD), critical care principles are employed to correct cardiocirculatory compromise, impaired tissue oxygenation and perfusion, and neurohormonal deficits. As well, certain treatments as well as marginally prolonging duration of brain death among otherwise stable donors may help improve posttransplant outcomes. In donation after circulatory determination of death (DCD), interventions are performed to limit warm ischemia and reverse its adverse effects. Finally, dietary and exercise programs have improved donation outcomes for both standard as well as overweight living donor (LD) candidates, while minimally invasive surgical techniques may offer improved outcomes among LD themselves.

SUMMARY

Donor interventions represent means to improve liver transplant yield and outcomes of liver donors and grafts.

Normothermic Machine Perfusion and Normothermic Regional Perfusion of DCD Kidneys Before Transplantation: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

To overcome organ shortages, donation after circulatory death (DCD) kidneys are being increasingly used for transplantation. Prior research suggests that DCD kidneys have inferior outcomes compared with kidneys donated after brain death. Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) and normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) may enhance the preservation of DCD kidneys and improve transplant outcomes. This study aimed to review the evidence surrounding NMP and NRP in DCD kidney transplantation.

METHODS

Two independent reviewers conducted searches for all publications reporting outcomes for NMP and NRP-controlled DCD kidneys, focusing on delayed graft function, primary nonfunction, graft function, graft survival, and graft utilization. Weighted means were calculated for all relevant outcomes and controls. Formal meta-analyses could not be conducted because of significant heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Twenty studies were included for review (6 NMP studies and 14 NRP studies). Delayed graft function rates seemed to be lower for NRP kidneys (24.6%) compared with NMP kidneys (54.3%). Both modalities yielded similar outcomes with respect to primary nonfunction (NMP 3.3% and NRP 5.6%), graft function (12-mo creatinine 149.3 μmol/L for NMP and 129.9 μmol/L for NRP), and graft utilization (NMP 83.3% and NRP 89%). Although no direct comparisons exist, our evidence suggests that both modalities have good short- and medium-term graft outcomes and high graft survival rates.

CONCLUSIONS

Current literature demonstrates that both NMP and NRP are feasible strategies that may increase donor organ utilization while maintaining acceptable transplant outcomes and likely improved outcomes compared with cold-stored DCD kidneys. Further research is needed to directly compare NRP and NMP outcomes.

American Society of Transplant Surgeons Normothermic Regional Perfusion Standards: Abdominal

BACKGROUND

Normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) has emerged as a vital technique in organ procurement, particularly in donation after circulatory death (DCD) cases, offering the potential to optimize organ utilization and improve posttransplant outcomes. Recognizing its significance, the American Society of Transplant Surgeons (ASTS) convened a work group to develop standardized recommendations for abdominal NRP in the United States.

METHODS

The workgroup, comprising experts in NRP, DCD, and transplantation, formulated recommendations through a collaborative process involving revisions and approvals by relevant committees and the ASTS council. Four key areas were identified for standardization: Preprocedure communication, NRP procedure, Terminology and documentation, and Mentorship/credentialing.

RESULTS

The recommendations encompass a range of considerations, including preprocedure communication protocols to facilitate informed decision-making by transplant centers and organ procurement organizations, procedural guidelines for NRP teams, uniform terminology to clarify the NRP process, and standards for mentorship and credentialing of NRP practitioners. Specific recommendations address logistical concerns, procedural nuances, documentation requirements, and the importance of ongoing quality assurance.

CONCLUSIONS

The standardized recommendations for abdominal NRP presented in this article aim to ensure consistency, safety, and efficacy in the organ procurement process. By establishing clear protocols and guidelines, the ASTS seeks to enhance organ utilization, honor donor wishes, and uphold public trust in the donation process. Implementation of these recommendations can contribute to the advancement of NRP practices and improve outcomes for transplant recipients.

Should advanced perfusion be the standard of care for donation after circulatory death liver transplant?

As an alternative to static cold storage (SCS), advanced perfusion techniques such as normothermic regional perfusion and ex-situ perfusion (normothermic or hypothermic) have emerged as a way to improve the ischemic injury suffered by donation after circulatory death (DCD) livers. Multiple studies have been published that have demonstrated superior post-DCD liver transplant outcomes when using advanced perfusion compared with SCS. In particular, these studies have shown lower rates of ischemic cholangiopathy with advanced perfusion. In addition to the improved post-liver transplant outcomes, studies have also demonstrated higher rates of liver utilization from DCD donors when advanced perfusion is used compared with SCS. Given the high rates of graft loss in patients who develop ischemic cholangiopathy, the significant reduction seen in DCD donor livers that have undergone advanced perfusion represents a key step in more broad utilization of these livers. With such compelling evidence from multiple trials, it seems reasonable to ask the question: should advanced perfusion be the standard of care for DCD liver transplant?

Abdominal normothermic regional perfusion in the United States: current state and future directions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) is a novel procurement technique for donation after circulatory death (DCD) in the United States. It was pioneered by cardiothoracic surgery programs and is now being applied to abdominal-only organ donors by abdominal transplant programs.

RECENT FINDINGS

Liver and kidney transplantation from thoracoabdominal NRP (TA-NRP) donors in the United States was found to have lower rates of delayed kidney graft function and similar graft and patient survival versus recipients of cardiac super rapid recovery (SRR) DCD donors. The excellent outcomes with NRP have prompted the expansion of NRP technology to abdominal transplant programs.

SUMMARY

Excellent early outcomes with liver and kidney transplantation have prompted the growth of NC-NRP procurement for abdominal-only DCD donors across the US, and now requires standardization of technical and nontechnical aspects of this procedure.

Normothermic regional perfusion procurement for abdominal organ donors: techniques and troubleshooting

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) is a novel procurement technique for donation after circulatory death (DCD) in the United States. It was pioneered by cardiothoracic surgery programs and is now being applied to abdominal-only organ donors by abdominal transplant programs. Multiple technical approaches can be used for abdominal-only NRP DCD donors and this review describes these techniques.

RECENT FINDINGS

NRP has been associated with higher utilization of organs, particularly liver and heart grafts, from DCD donors and with better recipient outcomes. There are lower rates of delayed graft function in kidney transplant recipients and lower rates of ischemic cholangiopathy in liver transplant recipients. These benefits are driving increased interest from abdominal transplant programs in using NRP for DCD procurements.

SUMMARY

This paper describes the technical aspects of NRP DCD that allow for maximization of its use based on different donor and policy characteristics.

US Liver Transplant Outcomes After Normothermic Regional Perfusion vs Standard Super Rapid Recovery

Importance

Normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) is an emerging recovery modality for transplantable allografts from controlled donation after circulatory death (cDCD) donors. In the US, only 11.4% of liver recipients who are transplanted from a deceased donor receive a cDCD liver. NRP has the potential to safely expand the US donor pool with improved transplant outcomes as compared with standard super rapid recovery (SRR).

Objective

To assess outcomes of US liver transplants using controlled donation after circulatory death livers recovered with normothermic regional perfusion vs standard super rapid recovery.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This was a retrospective, observational cohort study comparing liver transplant outcomes from cDCD donors recovered by NRP vs SRR. Outcomes of cDCD liver transplant from January 2017 to May 2023 were collated from 17 US transplant centers and included livers recovered by SRR and NRP (thoracoabdominal NRP [TA-NRP] and abdominal NRP [A-NRP]). Seven transplant centers used NRP, allowing for liver allografts to be transplanted at 17 centers; 10 centers imported livers recovered via NRP from other centers.

Exposures

cDCD livers were recovered by either NRP or SRR.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was ischemic cholangiopathy (IC). Secondary end points included primary nonfunction (PNF), early allograft dysfunction (EAD), biliary anastomotic strictures, posttransplant length of stay (LOS), and patient and graft survival.

Results

A total of 242 cDCD livers were included in this study: 136 recovered by SRR and 106 recovered by NRP (TA-NRP, 79 and A-NRP, 27). Median (IQR) NRP and SRR donor age was 30.5 (22-44) years and 36 (27-49) years, respectively. Median (IQR) posttransplant LOS was significantly shorter in the NRP cohort (7 [5-11] days vs 10 [7-16] days; P < .001). PNF occurred only in the SRR allografts group (n = 2). EAD was more common in the SRR cohort (123 of 136 [56.1%] vs 77 of 106 [36.4%]; P = .007). Biliary anastomotic strictures were increased 2.8-fold in SRR recipients (7 of 105 [6.7%] vs 30 of 134 [22.4%]; P = .001). Only SRR recipients had IC (0 vs 12 of 133 [9.0%]; P = .002); IC-free survival by Kaplan-Meier was significantly improved in NRP recipients. Patient and graft survival were comparable between cohorts.

Conclusion and Relevance

There was comparable patient and graft survival in liver transplant recipients of cDCD donors recovered by NRP vs SRR, with reduced rates of IC, biliary complications, and EAD in NRP recipients. The feasibility of A-NRP and TA-NRP implementation across multiple US transplant centers supports increasing adoption of NRP to improve organ use, access to transplant, and risk of wait-list mortality.

Enhancing the usability of older DCD donors through strategic approaches in liver transplantation in the United States

The use of older donors after circulatory death (DCD) for liver transplantation (LT) has increased over the past decade. This study examined whether outcomes of LT using older DCD (≥50 y) have improved with advancements in surgical/perioperative care and normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) technology. A total of 7602 DCD LT cases from the United Network for Organ Sharing database (2003-2022) were reviewed. The impact of older DCD donors on graft survival was assessed using the Kaplan-Meier and HR analyses. In all, 1447 LT cases (19.0%) involved older DCD donors. Although there was a decrease in their use from 2003 to 2014, a resurgence was noted after 2015 and reached 21.9% of all LTs in the last 4 years (2019-2022). Initially, 90-day and 1-year graft survivals for older DCDs were worse than younger DCDs, but this difference decreased over time and there was no statistical difference after 2015. Similarly, HRs for graft loss in older DCD have recently become insignificant. In older DCD LT, NMP usage has increased recently, especially in cases with extended donor-recipient distances, while the median time from asystole to aortic cross-clamp has decreased. Multivariable Cox regression analyses revealed that in the early phase, asystole to cross-clamp time had the highest HR for graft loss in older DCD LT without NMP, while in the later phases, the cold ischemic time (>5.5 h) was a significant predictor. LT outcomes using older DCD donors have become comparable to those from young DCD donors, with recent HRs for graft loss becoming insignificant. The strategic approach in the recent period could mitigate risks, including managing cold ischemic time (≤5.5 h), reducing asystole to cross-clamp time, and adopting NMP for longer distances. Optimal use of older DCD donors may alleviate the donor shortage.

Stepwise development and expansion of an abdominal normothermic regional perfusion program for donation after circulatory determination of death organ procurement

INTRODUCTION

Normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) represents an innovative technology that improves the outcomes for liver and kidney recipients of donation after circulatory determination of death (DCD) organs but protocols for abdominal-only NRP (A-NRP) DCD are lacking in the US.

METHODS

We describe the implementation and expansion strategies of a transplant-center-based A-NRP DCD program that has grown in volume, geographical reach, and donor acceptance parameters, presented as four eras.

RESULTS

In the implementation era, two donors were attempted, and one liver graft was transplanted. In the local expansion era, 33% of attempted donors resulted in transplantation and 42% of liver grafts from donors who died within the functional warm ischemic time (fWIT) limit were transplanted. In the Regional Expansion era, 25% of attempted donors resulted in transplantation and 50% of liver grafts from donors who died within the fWIT limit were transplanted. In the Donor Acceptance Expansion era, 46% of attempted donors resulted in transplantation and 72% of liver grafts from donors who died within the fWIT limit were transplanted. Eight discarded grafts demonstrated a potential opportunity for utilization.

CONCLUSION

The stepwise approach to building an A-NRP program described here can serve as a model for other transplant centers.

Association of procurement technique with organ yield and cost following donation after circulatory death

Donation after circulatory death (DCD) could account for the largest expansion of the donor allograft pool in the contemporary era. However, the organ yield and associated costs of normothermic regional perfusion (NRP) compared to super-rapid recovery (SRR) with ex-situ normothermic machine perfusion, remain unreported. The Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (December 2019 to June 2023) was analyzed to determine the number of organs recovered per donor. A cost analysis was performed based on our institution's experience since 2022. Of 43 502 donors, 30 646 (70%) were donors after brain death (DBD), 12 536 (29%) DCD-SRR and 320 (0.7%) DCD-NRP. The mean number of organs recovered was 3.70 for DBD, 3.71 for DCD-NRP (P < .001), and 2.45 for DCD-SRR (P < .001). Following risk adjustment, DCD-NRP (adjusted odds ratio 1.34, confidence interval 1.04-1.75) and DCD-SRR (adjusted odds ratio 2.11, confidence interval 2.01-2.21; reference: DBD) remained associated with greater odds of allograft nonuse. Including incomplete and completed procurement runs, the total average cost of DCD-NRP was $9463.22 per donor. By conservative estimates, we found that approximately 31 donor allografts could be procured using DCD-NRP for the cost equivalent of 1 allograft procured via DCD-SRR with ex-situ normothermic machine perfusion. In conclusion, DCD-SRR procurements were associated with the lowest organ yield compared to other procurement methods. To facilitate broader adoption of DCD procurement, a comprehensive understanding of the trade-offs inherent in each technique is imperative.