Saliva testing as noninvasive way for monitoring exercise-dependent response in teenage elite water polo players: A cohort study

Testosterone:cortisol ratio as a predictor of podium in adolescent rowing athletes

Purpose

There is a lack of data regarding the stress and motivation response in adolescent athletes during competitions. The athletic performance can be highly influenced by stress rather than appropriate training, at this age. The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the level of stress markers in adolescent rowers in different competition settings that might alter their stress status and performance.

Methods

Adolescent rowing athletes (12-18 yrs) have been tested for determining saliva content of stress biomarkers, cortisol and testosterone, before and after competitions that have been performed indoor and outdoor. Specifically, samples have been taken in the morning, before and after the race in 2 different settings: 1) an indoor rowing competition with an ergometer, 2) an outdoor rowing competition on boats.

Results

A reduction in cortisol levels has been observed in athletes right before the outdoor race, while testosterone levels increased at the same time point before either the ergometer or boat competition and kept rising at the end of the race. Significant differences have been found comparing the testosterone/cortisol ratio between indoor and outdoor data, being higher in the indoor race at all considered time-point. Furthermore, the linear regression demonstrated that the increased ratio correlated with a better podium position in the indoor race.

Conclusion

Despite the age differences among athletes might have an influence on their hormone levels, these data suggest that rowing athletes subjected to different kind of competitions show a different stress and motivation response profile that might influence their performance.

Exercise-related changes in the anabolic index (testosterone to cortisol ratio) and serum amyloid A concentration in endurance and racehorses at different fitness levels

Increased training loads in both human and equine athletes are generally implemented to improve their physical performance. These loads are tolerated only within appropriate training periodization with regard to recovery time. Otherwise, training overload causes failure in the systemic adaptation, which at first leads to overreaching, and progressively to overtraining syndrome (OTS). Exercise endocrinology, and anabolic/catabolic balance as an indicator of athlete performance status and OTS has continued to attract attention. In human medicine, changes in testosterone and cortisol levels, as well as the testosterone to cortisol ratio (T/C; anabolic index), are suggested to be sensitive stress markers. However, there is a lack of research investigating these parameters for use in equine sports medicine. The aim of the study was to investigate the differences in testosterone, cortisol, and T/C in response to a single training session in two types of equine sports: endurance and race, together with serum amyloid A (SAA), the main acute phase response indicator of physical effort, and the overall health status in horses. Two groups of horses were enrolled in the study: endurance (n = 12) and racehorses (n = 32) of different fitness level. Blood samples were obtained before and after the exercise. On average, T increased 2.5 times after the race training in experienced racehorses and dropped in endurance horses regardless the fitness level (p < 0.05). In endurance horses, a decrease in T/C occurred after training in inexperienced horses (p < 0.05). In racehorses, a T/C decrease occurred in the inexperienced group (p < 0.05) and an increase in the experienced (p < 0.01). In conclusion, T/C ratio was found to be a potentially reliable indicator of fitness status especially in racing horses. These findings provide insight into the physiological response of the horses to different types of exercise and the potential use of hormone levels as markers of performance and adaptation.

Validity of the Swimming Capacities and Anthropometric Indices in Predicting the Long-Term Success of Male Water Polo Players: A Position-Specific Prospective Analysis over a Ten-Year Period

Long-term predictors of success in water polo are rarely reported. This study aimed to evaluate the position-specific validity of the swimming and anthropometric/body build tests on the prediction of the long-term success of male water polo players. The participants were 85 top-level players observed at baseline (junior level, when they were 17–18 years of age; 35 centers and 50 perimeter players) in tests of swimming capacities (15 m water polo sprint, 25 m sprint, and 100 and 400 m freestyle swimming) and anthropometric/body build indices (body mass, body height, arm span, body mass index, and body fat percentage). Over a period of 10 years, participants’ senior-level success was prospectively observed. Multinomial logistic regression with three levels of criteria (high achievement, medium achievement, and low achievement at the senior level) was applied to identify the predictive validity of the swimming and anthropometric/body build indices. For the total sample (not dividing perimeter from center players), all observed swimming capacities, body height, and arm span were significantly associated with success, with more successful players being taller, with a longer arm span, and superior swimming capacities. Body height and 100 m freestyle swimming were significant predictors of success among centers. Achievement in 100 and 400 m freestyle swimming, body height, and a lower percentage of body fat were correlated with higher senior-level performance in perimeter players. The results showed better validity of the anaerobic-lactate and aerobic swimming tests than sprint swimming in predicting the long-term achievement of male water polo players. Differences in the influence of swimming capacities and body-build indices on senior-level success between observed playing positions are related to differences in game duties, playing time, and consequent metabolic demands.