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Guerrero-Pérez F, Peiró I, Vercher-Conejero JL, Teulé A, Villabona C. Carcinoid crisis: The challenge is still there. ENDOCRINOL DIAB NUTR 2024; 71:263-270. [PMID: 38986629 DOI: 10.1016/j.endien.2024.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
Carcinoid crisis (CC) has classically been considered the extreme end of the spectrum of carcinoid syndrome (CS). However, this presumption and other aspects of CC remain poorly understood. Consequently, current clinical guidelines are based on a low quality of evidence. There is no standard definition of CC and its incidence is unknown. Patients with florid CS and elevated serotonin (or its derivatives) which develop CC have been reported during decades. Nevertheless, the hypothesis that CC is due to the sudden massive release of serotonin or other vasoactive substances is unproven. Many triggers of CC (surgery, anaesthesia, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy, tumour biopsy or liver-directed treatments) have been proposed. However, data from studies are heterogeneous and even contradictory. Finally, the role of octreotide in the prevention of CC has been questioned. Herein, we report a clinical case and perform a critical review of the evidence available today on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Guerrero-Pérez
- Department of Endocrinology, Bellvitge University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Inmaculada Peiró
- Clinical Nutrition Unit, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Barcelona, Spain; Unit of Nutrition and Cancer-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José L Vercher-Conejero
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Nuclear Medicine-PET Unit, Bellvitge University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alex Teulé
- Department of Oncology, Catalan Institute of Oncology, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carles Villabona
- Department of Endocrinology, Bellvitge University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Spain
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Navin PJ, Ehman EC, Liu JB, Halfdanarson TR, Gupta A, Laghi A, Yoo DC, Carucci LR, Schima W, Sheedy SP. Imaging of Small-Bowel Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: AJR Expert Panel Narrative Review. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2023; 221:289-301. [PMID: 36752369 DOI: 10.2214/ajr.22.28877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) of the small bowel are typically slow-growing lesions that remain asymptomatic until reaching an advanced stage. Imaging modalities for lesion detection, staging, and follow-up in patients with known or suspected NEN include CT enterography, MR enterography, and PET/CT using a somatostatin receptor analog. FDG PET/CT may have a role in the evaluation of poorly differentiated NENs. Liver MRI, ideally with a hepatocyte-specific contrast agent, should be used in the evaluation of hepatic metastases. Imaging informs decisions regarding both surgical approaches and systematic therapy (specifically, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy). This AJR Expert Panel Narrative Review describes the multimodality imaging features of small-bowel NENs; explores the optimal imaging modalities for their diagnosis, staging, and follow-up; and discusses how imaging may be used to guide therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Navin
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st St SW, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Eric C Ehman
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st St SW, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Jason B Liu
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
| | | | - Akshya Gupta
- Department of Imaging Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY
| | - Andrea Laghi
- Department of Medical Surgical Sciences and Translational Medicine, AOU Sant'Andrea, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Don C Yoo
- Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI
| | - Laura R Carucci
- Department of Radiology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center, Richmond, VA
| | - Wolfgang Schima
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Goettlicher Heiland Krankenhaus, Barmherzige Schwestern Krankenhaus and Sankt Josef Krankenhaus, Vienna, Austria
| | - Shannon P Sheedy
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st St SW, Rochester, MN 55905
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Maxwell JE, Naraev B, Halperin DM, Choti MA, Halfdanarson TR. Shifting Paradigms in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Carcinoid Crisis. Ann Surg Oncol 2022; 29:3072-3084. [PMID: 35165817 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-022-11371-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Carcinoid crisis is a potentially fatal condition characterized by various symptoms, including hemodynamic instability, flushing, and diarrhea. The incidence of carcinoid crisis is unknown, in part due to inconsistency in definitions across studies. Triggers of carcinoid crisis include general anesthesia and surgical procedures, but drug-induced and spontaneous cases have also been reported. Patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) and carcinoid syndrome are at risk for carcinoid crisis. The pathophysiology of carcinoid crisis has been attributed to secretion of bioactive substances, such as serotonin, histamine, bradykinin, and kallikrein by NETs. The somatostatin analog octreotide has been considered the standard of care for carcinoid crisis due to its inhibitory effect on hormone release and relatively fast resolution of carcinoid crisis symptoms in several case studies. However, octreotide's efficacy in the treatment of carcinoid crisis has been questioned. This is due to a lack of a common definition for carcinoid crisis, the heterogeneity in clinical presentation, the paucity of prospective studies assessing octreotide efficacy in carcinoid crisis, and the lack of understanding of the pathophysiology of carcinoid crisis. These issues challenge the classical physiologic model of carcinoid crisis and its common etiology with carcinoid syndrome and raise questions regarding the utility of somatostatin analogs in its treatment. As surgical procedures and invasive liver-directed therapies remain important treatment modalities in patients with NETs, the pathophysiology of carcinoid crisis, potential benefits of octreotide, and efficacy of alternative treatment modalities must be studied prospectively to develop an effective evidence-based treatment strategy for carcinoid crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Maxwell
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Boris Naraev
- Banner MD Anderson Cancer Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Daniel M Halperin
- Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Thorvardur R Halfdanarson
- Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA. .,Mayo Clinic Cancer Center, Rochester, MN, USA.
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Jang S, Schmitz JJ, Atwell TD, Welch TL, Welch BT, Hobday TJ, Adamo DA, Moynagh MR. Percutaneous Image-Guided Core Needle Biopsy of Neuroendocrine Tumors: How Common Is Intraprocedural Carcinoid Crisis? J Vasc Interv Radiol 2021; 32:745-751. [PMID: 33608193 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvir.2021.01.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To retrospectively evaluate the incidence of carcinoid crisis, other complications, and physiologic disturbances during percutaneous image-guided core needle biopsy of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) in the lung and the liver. MATERIALS AND METHODS Between January 2010 and January 2020, 106 computed tomography (CT) or ultrasound (US)-guided core needle biopsies of lung and liver NETs were performed in 95 consecutive adult patients. The mean age was 64 ± 13 years, and 48% were female. The small bowel was the most common primary site (33%, 31/95), and 32 (34%) patients had pre-existing symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. The mean tumor size was 3.2 ± 2.6 cm, and mean number of passes was 3.4 ± 1.6. A 17/18-gauge needle was used in 91% (96/106) of the biopsies. Thirteen (12%) patients received either outpatient or prophylactic octreotide. RESULTS No patients experienced carcinoid crisis or needed octreotide, inotropes, vasopressors, or resuscitation. A single biopsy procedure (0.9%, 1/106) was complicated by bleeding that required angiographic hepatic artery embolization. Changes in pre-biopsy- versus post-biopsy systolic blood pressure and heart rate were -1.6 mm Hg (P = .390) and 0.6 beat/min (P = .431), respectively. Tumor functional status, overall tumor burden, and the elevation of neuroendocrine markers were not associated with intraprocedural physiologic disturbances. There were 4 minor complications (0.4%, 4/106) associated with the biopsy procedure that were not attributed to hormone excretion from tumor manipulation. CONCLUSIONS Percutaneous image-guided core biopsy of NETs is safe, with low complication rate and no definite carcinoid crisis in the current cohort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Jang
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905.
| | - John J Schmitz
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Thomas D Atwell
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Tasha L Welch
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Brian T Welch
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Timothy J Hobday
- Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Daniel A Adamo
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Michael R Moynagh
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
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Lehrman ED, Fidelman N. Liver-Directed Therapy for Neuroendocrine Tumor Liver Metastases in the Era of Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy. Semin Intervent Radiol 2020; 37:499-507. [PMID: 33328706 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1720951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Neuroendocrine tumor liver metastases are treated by a multidisciplinary cohort of physicians that work together to achieve optimal clinical results for their patients. This review addresses critical concepts in diagnosis and workup of such patients followed by medical, surgical, and liver-directed arterial and ablative therapies. Specific perioperative care for these patients is crucial in avoiding dreaded complications related to Carcinoid Crisis. The recent introduction of Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy as a therapeutic option has impacted some of the algorithms for timing and selection of arterial embolotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan D Lehrman
- Division of Interventional Radiology, Department of Radiology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Nicholas Fidelman
- Division of Interventional Radiology, Department of Radiology, University of California, San Francisco, California
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Periprocedural Management of Patients Undergoing Liver Resection or Embolotherapy for Neuroendocrine Tumor Metastases. Pancreas 2019; 48:496-503. [PMID: 30946246 DOI: 10.1097/mpa.0000000000001271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to describe the periprocedural management of patients with well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors with hepatic metastases who underwent liver-directed procedures. METHODS We performed a retrospective review of patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors who underwent liver resection, ablation, or embolotherapy at a single center from 2012 to 2016. The primary outcome was occurrence of documented carcinoid crisis (CC) or hemodynamic instability (HDI), defined as 10 minutes or more of systolic blood pressure less than 80 or greater than 180 mm Hg, or pulse greater than 120 beats per minute. RESULTS We identified 75 patients who underwent liver resection/ablation (n = 38) or embolotherapy (n = 37). Twenty-four patients (32%) experienced CC or HDI (CC/HDI); CC occurred in 3 patients. No clinicopathologic or procedural factors, including procedure type, octreotide or long-acting somatostatin analog use, and history of carcinoid syndrome, were associated with CC/HDI. Grades 2 to 4 complications were reported in 42% of patients who experienced CC/HDI versus in 16% of patients who did not experience CC/HDI (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS A significant portion of patients developed CC/HDI, and these patients were more likely to develop severe postprocedural complications. Periprocedural octreotide use was not associated with lower CC/HDI occurrence, but continued use is advised given its safety profile until additional studies definitively demonstrate lack of benefit.
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Howe JR, Cardona K, Fraker DL, Kebebew E, Untch BR, Wang YZ, Law CH, Liu EH, Kim MK, Menda Y, Morse BG, Bergsland EK, Strosberg JR, Nakakura EK, Pommier RF. The Surgical Management of Small Bowel Neuroendocrine Tumors: Consensus Guidelines of the North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society. Pancreas 2017; 46:715-731. [PMID: 28609357 PMCID: PMC5502737 DOI: 10.1097/mpa.0000000000000846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Small bowel neuroendocrine tumors (SBNETs) have been increasing in frequency over the past decades, and are now the most common type of small bowel tumor. Consequently, general surgeons and surgical oncologists are seeing more patients with SBNETs in their practices than ever before. The management of these patients is often complex, owing to their secretion of hormones, frequent presentation with advanced disease, and difficulties with making the diagnosis of SBNETs. Despite these issues, even patients with advanced disease can have long-term survival. There are a number of scenarios which commonly arise in SBNET patients where it is difficult to determine the optimal management from the published data. To address these challenges for clinicians, a consensus conference was held assembling experts in the field to review and discuss the available literature and patterns of practice pertaining to specific management issues. This paper summarizes the important elements from these studies and the recommendations of the group for these questions regarding the management of SBNET patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Howe
- From the *Department of Surgery, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA; †Department of Surgery, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA; ‡Department of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA; §Endocrine Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD; ∥Gastric and Mixed Tumor Service, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY; ¶Department of Surgery, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA; #Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Center, Toronto, Canada; **Rocky Mountain Cancer Center, Denver, CO; ††Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; ‡‡Department of Radiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA; §§Department of Radiology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL; ∥∥Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; ¶¶Department of Medicine, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL; ##Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; and ***Department of Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Carcinoid crisis is a life-threatening syndrome of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) characterized by dramatic blood pressure fluctuation, arrhythmias, and bronchospasm. In the era of booming anti-tumor therapeutics, this has become more important since associated stresses can trigger carcinoid crisis. Somatostatin analogues (SSTA) have been recommended for prophylactic administration before intervention procedures for functioning NETs. However, the efficacy is still controversial. The aim of this article is to review efficacy of SSTA for preventing carcinoid crisis. MATERIALS AND METHODS PubMed, Cochrane Controlled trials Register, and EMBASE were searched using 'carcinoid crisis' as a search term combining terms with 'somatostatin'; 'octreotide'; 'lanreotide' and 'pasireotide' until December 2013. RESULTS Twenty-eight articles were retrieved with a total of fifty-three unique patients identified for carcinoid crisis. The most common primary sites of NETs were the small intestine and respiratory tract. The triggering factors for carcinoid crisis included anesthesia/ surgery (63.5%), interventional therapy (11.5%), radionuclide therapy (9.6%), examination (7.7%), medication (3.8%), biopsy (2%) and spontaneous (2%). No randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified and two case-control studies were included to assess the efficacy of SSTA for preventing carcinoid crisis by meta-analysis. The overall pooled risk of perioperative carcinoid crisis was similar despite the prophylactic administration of SSTA (OR 0.44, 95% CI: 0.14 to 1.35, p=0.15). CONCLUSIONS SSTA was not helpful for preventing carcinoid crisis based on a meta-analysis of retrospective studies. Attentive monitoring and careful intervention are essential. Future studies with better quality are needed to clarify any effect of SSTA for preventing carcinoid crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Jie Guo
- Department opf Gastroenterology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China E-mail :
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Reversible right-sided heart failure secondary to carcinoid crisis. Case Rep Crit Care 2013; 2013:487801. [PMID: 24804121 PMCID: PMC4010008 DOI: 10.1155/2013/487801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Carcinoid crisis is an infrequent and little-described complication of neuroendocrine tumors that can be life threatening. It may develop during induction of anesthesia, intraoperatively, during tumor manipulation and arterial embolization, or even spontaneously. The massive release of neuroendocrine substances can lead to potentially fatal complications. Somatostatin analogs inhibit the release of these substances and are the mainstay of treatment. The following case report describes a patient with reversible acute right-sided heart failure posterior to hepatic artery embolization.
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Mega-dose intravenous octreotide for the treatment of carcinoid crisis: a systematic review. Can J Anaesth 2013; 60:492-9. [PMID: 23328959 DOI: 10.1007/s12630-012-9879-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Carcinoid crises are rare life-threatening events involving cardiac instability when carcinoid tumours release vasoactive peptides. Such events can occur in the perioperative setting. Octreotide, a somatostatin analogue, is administered as a bolus dose of 100-500 μg iv or by infusion to treat carcinoid crises. Due to the apparent low risk-to-benefit profile, a much higher dose is sometimes used in urgent situations. The purpose of this study was to assess the evidence for administering doses or hourly infusions of octreotide that exceeded 1,500 μg iv to treat carcinoid crises. We also sought to identify which patients may require large doses and to describe the adverse effects of such doses. SOURCE We systematically searched Medline, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases and hand-searched reference lists of relevant articles in 2006 and again in 2010 and 2011. All study designs were included in our search. Resolution of crisis symptoms was the primary outcome. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Eighteen articles were included. No patient died during a carcinoid crisis. A retrospective chart review of 89 patients with carcinoid heart disease reported octreotide doses of 25-54,000 μg to treat carcinoid crises, although neither crisis symptoms nor outcomes were described. CONCLUSION In the included case reports, carcinoid crises were managed effectively using octreotide 25-500 μg iv. Previous exposure to octreotide and carcinoid heart disease may warrant the need for higher doses. In addition to the low quality of the articles and the small sample size, inconsistent use of the term "carcinoid crisis" and paucity of reported outcomes were also limitations of this systematic review. These findings highlight the need for further investigation into dose-response relationships of octreotide for the treatment of carcinoid crisis.
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Primary liver carcinoid tumour with a Zollinger Ellison syndrome - an unusual diagnosis: a case report. CASES JOURNAL 2009; 2:6346. [PMID: 19918579 PMCID: PMC2769289 DOI: 10.4076/1757-1626-2-6346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2009] [Accepted: 07/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Carcinoids are neuroendocrine tumours which may secrete hormones like gastrin, insulin, ACTH, etc. Liver is a common site for metastasis of carcinoid origin and an unusual site for a primary carcinoid tumour to arise. We present the case of a 51-year-old Caucasian man with diarrhoea, weight loss, duodenum ulcers and a liver mass in ultrasonography. A primary hepatic carcinoid tumour with a Zollinger Ellison syndrome was diagnosed. Surgery resection was performed and the patient remained free of symptoms two years after, with normalisation of gastrin levels. Primary hepatic carcinoid tumour represents an uncommon diagnosis, based on radiological and pathological features. The exclusion of different primary locations is necessary. Once associated with a Zollinger Ellison syndrome, diagnose may be more complicated and challenging since only 7 cases of hepatic carcinoids with gastrin secretion were reported in medical literature. A review of medical literature is performed and diagnoses tools that should be used for an accurate diagnosis and available treatment approaches are commented here.
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