Clostridium difficile colitis: review of the therapeutic approach

Are Clostridium difficile toxins nephrotoxic?

Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) occurs along a spectrum from simple uncomplicated enteritis to a multi-system disease which may include nephropathy. Pathology is attributed to bacterial toxins, but it is unclear if the latter are directly nephrotoxic. Anecdotes of renal disease from human biopsy findings suggest a variation of histopathologies, but data are relatively limited. Acute renal failure does occur in patients with advanced morbidity. CDAD can complicate chronic renal failure. Kidney tissue culture cytotoxicity has long been known. Kidney function alterations among animal models or diseased humans are relatively uncommon in mild to moderate enteritis. Rare findings of toxinemia are reported. Some have proposed that renal dysfunction arises more from pre-renal compromises. Direct toxin studies on whole kidney are sparse. The role of direct toxin-associated renal disease is worthy of further investigation given the current impetus towards the development of protective and therapeutic passive and active immunity. Hypotheses of toxin-direct or pre-renal toxin compromise of renal function prevail.

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection: current and alternative therapeutic strategies

Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) has become a pathogen of worldwide importance considering that epidemic strains are disseminated in hospitals of several countries, where community-acquired infections act as a constant source of new C. difficile strains into hospitals. Despite the advances in the treatment of infections, more effective therapies against C. difficile are needed but, at the same time, these therapies should be less harmful to the resident gastrointestinal microbiota. The purpose of this review is to present a description of issues associated to C. difficile infection, a summary of current therapies and those in developmental stage, and a discussion of potential combinations that may lead to an increased efficacy of C. difficile infection treatment.

Prospective Clinical Trial of Rifaximin Therapy for Patients With Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a rare, chronic, cholestatic liver disease in which emerging data suggest that oral antibiotics may offer therapeutic effects. We enrolled patients with PSC in a 12-week, open-label pilot study to investigate the efficacy and safety of 550 mg of oral rifaximin twice daily. The primary end point was serum alkaline phosphatase (ALK) at 12 weeks. Secondary end points included (1) serum bilirubin, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, and Mayo PSC risk score; (2) fatigue impact scale, chronic liver disease questionnaire, and short form health survey (SF-36) scores; and (3) adverse effects (AEs). Analyses were performed with nonparametric tests. Sixteen patients were enrolled, among whom the median age was 40 years; 13 (81%) were male, 13 had inflammatory bowel disease, and baseline ALK was 342 IU/mL (interquartile range, 275-520 IU/mL). After 12 weeks of treatment, there were no significant changes in ALK (median increase of 0.9% to 345 IU/mL; P = 0.47) or any of the secondary biochemical end points (all P > 0.05). Similarly, there were no significant changes in fatigue impact scale, chronic liver disease questionnaire, or SF-36 scores (all P > 0.05). Three patients withdrew from the study due to AEs; 4 others reported mild AEs but completed the study. In conclusion, although some antibiotics may have promise in treating PSC, oral rifaximin, based on the results herein, seems inefficacious for this indication. Future studies are needed to understand how the antimicrobial spectra and other properties of antibiotics might determine their utility in treating PSC.

DETECTION, RIBOTYPING AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE PROPERTIES OF CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE STRAINS ISOLATED FROM THE CASES OF DIARRHEA

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile is the most prevalent cause of antibiotic-associated infectious diarrhea al-around the world. Prevalence of virulent and resistant strains of Clostridium difficile is increasing now a day. The present investigation was carried out to study the prevalence, ribotyping and antibiotic resistance pattern of C. difficile isolated from diarrheic and non-diarrheic pediatrics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four-hundred stool specimens were collected from the diarrheic and non-diarrheic pediatrics hospitalized due to the diseases other than diarrhea. Samples were cultured and their positive results were subjected to disk diffusion and PCR-based ribotyping.

RESULTS

Thirty-five out of 400 (8.75%) samples were positive for C. difficile. Prevalence of C. difficile in diarrheic and non-diarrheic pediatrics were 11.25% and 4.16%, respectively. Male had the higher prevalence of bacteria than female (P < 0.05). eight to twelve months old pediatrics were the most commonly infected group. R27 (14.28%), R1 (10.71%), R12 (7.14%), R13 (7.14%) and R18 (7.14%) were most commonly detected ribotypes. There were no positive results for studied ribotypes in non-diarrheic pediatrics. C. difficile strains had the highest levels of resistance against tetracycline (71.42%), erythromycin (57.14%), moxifloxacin (48.57%), metronidazole (28.57%) and clindamycin (22.85%) antibiotics.

CONCLUSION

Prescription of antibiotics in diarrheic pediatrics, males and also 8-12 months old pediatrics should be done in a regular and cautious manner.

Clostridium difficile infection: update on diagnosis, epidemiology, and treatment strategies

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has increased in incidence and severity over the past quarter century, and is now considered a major cause of healthcare-associated infections.

METHODS

Review of the pertinent English-language medical literature.

RESULTS

There has been a substantial change in the management of CDI. The emergence of the NAP1/BI/O27 strain in the early to mid-2000s has been associated with more severe forms of CDI. The pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations and diagnosis, as well as new strategies for medical and surgical management are discussed in this review.

CONCLUSIONS

Clostridium difficile infection can range from benign diarrhea to severe disease associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Treatment modalities vary based on disease severity and timing of onset. The mainstay of medical treatment remains metronidazole and oral/rectal vancomycin. New management strategies are evolving, including adjunctive treatments such as monoclonal antibodies, vaccination, and fecal transplant. In patients with severe disease or clinical deterioration, early surgical consultation for total colectomy or loop ileostomy may be life-saving. Infection control measures are vital to mitigating the spread of CDI.

Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in pediatric patients

Clostridium difficile causes infections that can either remain asymptomatic or manifest as clinical disease. In this report, problems, possible solutions, and future perspectives on the treatment of C. difficile infections (CDIs) in pediatric patients are discussed. CDI, despite increasing as a consequence of the overuse and misuse of antibiotics, remains relatively uncommon in pediatrics mainly because younger children are poorly susceptible to the action of C. difficile toxins. In most such cases, C. difficile disease is mild to moderate and discontinuation of the administered antibiotics in patients receiving these drugs when CDI develops, or administration of metronidazole, is sufficient to solve this problem. In severe or frequently relapsing cases, vancomycin is the drug of choice. Probiotics do not seem to add significant advantages. Other treatment options must be reserved for severe cases and be considered as a salvage treatment, although potential advantages in pediatric patients remain unclear.

Binaphthyl-1,2,3-triazole peptidomimetics with activity against Clostridium difficile and other pathogenic bacteria

Designed binaphthyl-based, cationic peptidomimetic antimicrobials targeting C. difficile, incorporating a click-derived 1,2,3-triazole ester isostere at the C-terminus MICs of 4 μg mL⁻¹ against three human isolates of C. difficile.

Progress in the discovery of treatments for C. difficile infection: A clinical and medicinal chemistry review

Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic, Gram-positive pathogen that causes C. difficile infection, which results in significant morbidity and mortality. The incidence of C. difficile infection in developed countries has become increasingly high due to the emergence of newer epidemic strains, a growing elderly population, extensive use of broad spectrum antibiotics, and limited therapies for this diarrheal disease. Because treatment options currently available for C. difficile infection have some drawbacks, including cost, promotion of resistance, and selectivity problems, new agents are urgently needed to address these challenges. This review article focuses on two parts: the first part summarizes current clinical treatment strategies and agents under clinical development for C. difficile infection; the second part reviews newly reported anti-difficile agents that have been evaluated or reevaluated in the last five years and are in the early stages of drug discovery and development. Antibiotics are divided into natural product inspired and synthetic small molecule compounds that may have the potential to be more efficacious than currently approved treatments. This includes potency, selectivity, reduced cytotoxicity, and novel modes of action to prevent resistance.