From the tongue to the gut

Non-Nutritive Sweeteners and Their Implications on the Development of Metabolic Syndrome

Individuals widely use non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) in attempts to lower their overall daily caloric intake, lose weight, and sustain a healthy diet. There are insufficient scientific data that support the safety of consuming NNS. However, recent studies have suggested that NNS consumption can induce gut microbiota dysbiosis and promote glucose intolerance in healthy individuals that may result in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This sequence of events may result in changes in the gut microbiota composition through microRNA (miRNA)-mediated changes. The mechanism(s) by which miRNAs alter gene expression of different bacterial species provides a link between the consumption of NNS and the development of metabolic changes. Another potential mechanism that connects NNS to metabolic changes is the molecular crosstalk between the insulin receptor (IR) and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Here, we aim to highlight the role of NNS in obesity and discuss IR-GPCR crosstalk and miRNA-mediated changes, in the manipulation of the gut microbiota composition and T2DM pathogenesis.

Glutamate prevents intestinal atrophy via luminal nutrient sensing in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition

Small intestine luminal nutrient sensing may be crucial for modulating physiological functions. However, its mechanism of action is incompletely understood. We used a model of enteral nutrient deprivation, or total parenteral nutrition (TPN), resulting in intestinal mucosal atrophy and decreased epithelial barrier function (EBF). We examined how a single amino acid, glutamate (GLM), modulates intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) growth and EBF. Controls were chow-fed mice, T1 receptor-3 (T1R3)-knockout (KO) mice, and treatment with the metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-5 antagonist MTEP. TPN significantly changed the amount of T1Rs, GLM receptors, and transporters, and GLM prevented these changes. GLM significantly prevented TPN-associated intestinal atrophy (2.5-fold increase in IEC proliferation) and was dependent on up-regulation of the protein kinase pAkt, but independent of T1R3 and mGluR5 signaling. GLM led to a loss of EBF with TPN (60% increase in FITC-dextran permeability, 40% decline in transepithelial resistance); via T1R3, it protected EBF, whereas mGluR5 was associated with EBF loss. GLM led to a decline in circulating glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) during TPN. The decline was regulated by T1R3 and mGluR5, suggesting a novel negative regulator pathway for IEC proliferation not previously described. Loss of luminal nutrients with TPN administration may widely affect intestinal taste sensing. GLM has previously unrecognized actions on IEC growth and EBF. Restoring luminal sensing via GLM could be a strategy for patients on TPN.

Sensing bacteria, without bitterness?

In addition to their recognized roles in intra- and inter-species signaling, bacterial quorum-sensing molecules have been implicated in inter-kingdom signaling. A new study in Pseudomonas aeruginosa suggests that mammalian bitter taste receptors may recognize bacterial quorum sensing molecules, and widens the scope of such inter-kingdom communication. Intestinal cells also harbor these receptors, but whether they eavesdrop on bacterial conversations remains an open question.

The brain's response to an essential amino acid-deficient diet and the circuitous route to a better meal

The essential (indispensable) amino acids (IAA) are neither synthesized nor stored in metazoans, yet they are the building blocks of protein. Survival depends on availability of these protein precursors, which must be obtained in the diet; it follows that food selection is critical for IAA homeostasis. If even one of the IAA is depleted, its tRNA becomes quickly deacylated and the levels of charged tRNA fall, leading to disruption of global protein synthesis. As they have priority in the diet, second only to energy, the missing IAA must be restored promptly or protein catabolism ensues. Animals detect and reject an IAA-deficient meal in 20 min, but how? Here, we review the molecular basis for sensing IAA depletion and repletion in the brain's IAA chemosensor, the anterior piriform cortex (APC). As animals stop eating an IAA-deficient meal, they display foraging and altered choice behaviors, to improve their chances of encountering a better food. Within 2 h, sensory cues are associated with IAA depletion or repletion, leading to learned aversions and preferences that support better food selection. We show neural projections from the APC to appetitive and consummatory motor control centers, and to hedonic, motivational brain areas that reinforce these adaptive behaviors.