Occurrence and Duration of Interruptions During Nurses' Work in Surgical Wards: Findings From a Multicenter Observational Study

Experiences of clinical nurses with medication interruption: A systematic review and qualitative meta-synthesis

BACKGROUND

Managing medication interruptions is considered one of the biggest dilemmas for nurses in clinical settings. To improve medication safety, it was imperative to conduct a systematic review to get a deeper understanding of nurses' experiences with medication interruptions.

AIMS

A systematic review and qualitative meta-synthesis aimed to explore clinical nurses' experiences of interruption during medication in hospitals.

METHODS

Systematic searches were conducted in PubMed, CINAHL, Ovid Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and The Cochrane Library from inception to January 2024. The search strategy included four groups of keywords: (1) qualitative research, (2) nurses, (3) medication interruption, and (4) experience. Critical Appraisal Skills Programme was used to assess the quality of the studies. Meta-ethnography was utilized to synthesize the findings of the included studies.

RESULTS

Nine articles published between 2012 and 2023 were included; the number of participants varied from 5 to 40, aged 20-68 years, and the majority were female. Four synthesized findings were identified as follows: (1) an inevitable part of the routine, (2) a decision-making process, (3) working in a minefield, and (4) coping with interruption.

LINKING EVIDENCE TO ACTION

Nurses embraced interruptions as an inherent component of clinical care. Previous experience and nursing culture, encompassing personal and professional aspects, significantly influence nurses' attitudes toward medication interruptions. It is crucial to incorporate the distinctive work experiences of nurses into techniques aimed at efficiently handling interruptions in future research. The registration number in PROSPERO is CRD42023470276.

Qualitative Study on Safe and Effective Handover Information during a Rapid Response Team Encounter

Introduction

A rapid response team (RRT) evaluates and manages patients at risk of clinical deterioration. There is limited literature on the structure of the rapid response encounter from the floor to the intensive care unit team. We aimed to define this encounter and examine provider experiences to elucidate what information healthcare staff need to safely manage patients during an RRT evaluation.

Methods

This phenomenological qualitative study included 6 focus groups (3 in-person and 3 virtually) organized by provider type (nurses, residents, fellows, attendings), which took place until thematic saturation was reached. Two authors inductively coded transcripts and used a quota sampling strategy to ensure that the focus groups represented key stakeholders. Transcripts were then analyzed to identify themes that providers believe influence the RRT's quality, efficacy, and efficiency and their ability to manage and treat the acutely decompensating pediatric patient on the floor.

Results

Transcript coding yielded 38 factors organized into 8 themes. These themes are a summary statement or recap, closed-loop communication, interpersonal communication, preparation, duration, emotional validation, contingency planning, and role definition.

Conclusions

The principal themes of utmost importance at our institution during an RRT encounter are preparation, a brief and concise handoff from the floor team, and a summary statement from the intensive care unit team with contingency planning at the end of the encounter. Our data suggest that some standardization may be beneficial during the handoff.

Development and Validation of a Nursing Work Interruption Scale

Work interruption disturbs nurses' flow of thinking, diminishes work efficiency, induces burnout, and causes errors that can threaten patients' lives. Therefore, it is important to identify the causes and measure the extent of work interruption. This study developed a self-report scale and established its validity and reliability for use in hospital settings. Through literature review and in-depth interviews with nurses, we identified two components and developed 25 preliminary items. These items were reviewed by nursing experts for content validity and pilot tested among 20 hospital nurses; subsequently, a 16-item preliminary instrument was finalized. A total of 359 questionnaires were included in the final analysis, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. Two factors and 12 items were derived from two rounds of EFA, with a cumulative percentage of variance of 55.73%. Construct validity was established through CFA. The predictive validity and internal consistency reliability of the developed scale were also established. Thus, the 12-item Work Interruption Measurement Scale for Nurses comprising two domains (human and environmental factors) was developed. This scale can be useful in assessing work interruption experienced by nurses and for developing and assessing the effectiveness of interventions pertaining to nurses' work interruption.

Degree of interruptions experienced by emergency department nurses and interruption related factors

AIMS

This study examined the degree of interruptions experienced by emergency department nurses and related factors.

METHODS

This study is a descriptive survey using standardized observation tools. A total of 23 nurses working in an emergency department participated in this study. Using a stopwatch over 120 h, the degree of interruptions was investigated by measuring start and end times of tasks and interruptions. Factors related to interruptions were classified as communication, telephone calls, medical device alarms, changes in patient condition, and other factors.

RESULTS

The frequency of interruptions in the emergency department was 6.4 times per hour, and its percentage was 9.1%. The time required for actual nursing tasks of "counseling and education," "safety," and "patient nursing management and information management" were increased significantly due to interruptions. A primary factor in interruptions was communication with patients, families, and nurses. The longest duration and the highest frequency of interruptions occurred during medication tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Communication with patients, families, and nurses was the highest factor related to interruptions. Nurses may cause interruptions and be subjected to interruptions simultaneously. Therefore, nurses in the emergency department should work with caution not to cause interruptions.

A Study on the Improvement of Nursing Interruption Risk by a Closed-Loop Management Model

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of closed-loop management on nursing disruption risk.

Methods

Using a quasi-experimental research method, convenient sampling was used to extract 20 nurses working at our hospital as the research objects. The control group members were selected from January to March 2018 via the traditional method, and the experimental group members were selected from April to June 2018 via the closed-loop management method. At three months before and after the implementation of the management model, a self-designed quantitative test form and satisfaction questionnaire were used to analyze the frequency of nursing disruption events, the accuracy rate of doctors’ advice, the average drug delivery time of the static distribution center, the implementation rate of personal digital assistant (PDA) code scanning, and the report rate of risk-outcome nursing disruption events.

Results

After the implementation of the management model, the frequency of nursing disruptions and average drug delivery time of the static distribution center were significantly lower than before, and the differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Moreover, the accuracy rate of doctors’ advice, the implementation rate of PDA code scanning, and the reporting rate of risk-outcome nursing disruption events were significantly higher than before, and these differences were statistically significant as well (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The application of a closed-loop management model could significantly reduce the occurrence and optimize the outcomes of nursing disruption events and improve the work processes of medical care.

Factors Influencing Nurses' Work Interruption in Wuhan Isolation Wards During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background

Through January 2021, the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) continued to create significant pressure on medical staff who have worked to treat patients with the disease and control its spread. This study aimed to increase understanding of the situation and influencing factors of nurses’ work interruption in Wuhan’s isolation ward during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Material/Methods

A self-designed general situation questionnaire and work interruption questionnaire were used to survey 160 nurses from Beijing, Chongqing, and Jilin who worked during the COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan in March 2020. The questionnaire could only be answered once by each nurse via a WeChat account. The submitted answers were verified by 2 researchers.

Results

The results showed that the rate of interruption of work among nurses in the isolation ward was 25%, and the rate of nurses experiencing a negative experience was 96.9%. The results of univariate analysis showed that the following factors were related to the work interruption of the nurses in the isolation ward (all P<0.05): emergency public incident training; emergency public incident treatment experience; knowledge of COVID-19 pneumonia; hours worked per shift in the quarantine area; and negative physiologic experience. Logistic regression analysis showed that negative experience, hours worked per shift, and emergency public incident training were the independent factors influencing work interruption among nurses in the isolation wards.

Conclusions

The incidence of interruption of work among nurses in the isolation ward was 25%. Negative experiences, long working hours per shift, and lack of emergency public incident training made the nurses more prone to work interruption.

Mobile phone addiction and its association with burnout in Chinese novice nurses: A cross-sectional survey

AIM

To explore the levels of mobile phone addiction and burnout and their relationships among novice nurses.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional investigation design.

METHODS

Questionnaires were distributed to 400 novice nurses in five public hospitals in China. A total of 366 participants completed the survey. Data collected in 2020 were analysed by using descriptive statistics, an independent t test and Pearson's correlation analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that the frequency of nursing adverse events was associated with higher level of mobile phone addiction in novice nurses, and 52.46% of the participants (N = 366) presented a high level of occupational burnout. Moreover, the results indicated that there was a positive correlation between the novice nurses' mobile phone addiction level and burnout (r = .33, p < .01).

CONCLUSION

The level of mobile phone addiction may affect nursing adverse events and nurses' burnout. Education on novice nurses' mobile phone use seems necessary to ensure patient safety and burnout prevention.

IMPACT

Findings of this study expanded important knowledge about mobile phone addiction and its potential influence on nursing safety and nurse burnout and may place significant implications to staff nurse management and in-service education.

Impact of interruptions on the duration of nursing interventions: A study in a chemotherapy unit

Abstract Objective: To investigate interruptions during nursing interventions in a chemotherapy unit (sources and causes); measure their frequency, duration and the total elapsed time to complete the interventions. Method: This is an observational analytical study performed using a digital stopwatch. It was conducted in a teaching hospital between 2015/2016. The interventions performed and their interruptions were mapped and classified according to the Nursing Interventions Classifications (NIC) taxonomy. Results: There were 492 interruptions recorded in the 107 hours observed, especially in indirect care interventions. They were mainly caused by nursing professionals (n = 289; 57.3%) to supply materials (n = 65; 12.8%) and exchange care information (n = 65; 12.8%). The duration of interruptions ranged from 0:08 to 9:09 (average 1:15; SD 1:03) minutes. On average, interventions took 2:16 (SD 0:27) minutes to complete without interruption; however, the average was 5:59 (SD 3:01) minutes when interrupted. Conclusion: The interruptions were constant during the nursing work in the chemotherapy unit, including during the preparation and administration of medications, and increased the time to complete the interventions by an average of 163.9%.

Nurses' experiences with newly acquired knowledge about medication management: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate nurses' experiences with implementation of knowledge gained through an obligatory medication management programme (MMP).

BACKGROUND

Lack of knowledge among nurses is an important contributor to medication management errors. Therefore, training programmes such as the MMP were established to help nurses acquire and refine their practice skills.

METHOD

This was a qualitative study using semistructured interviews and thematically analysed data.

RESULTS

The nurses felt that medication management was a major responsibility, but following the MMP, they experienced a greater awareness of their own knowledge and became more confident. Time pressures and poorly established procedures and organisational planning were experienced as barriers to ensuring sound medication management practice and made it difficult to implement the knowledge gained from the MMP.

CONCLUSION

Nurses reported that the MMP gave them greater awareness of their knowledge and new knowledge. They also stated that management choices were significantly affected by organisational factors, stress and their own lack of confidence.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGEMENT

Ensuring a secure knowledge base, positive working environment and nursing staffing that matches the workload will further improve nurses' professional skills and knowledge.

Exploring person-centred fundamental nursing care in hospital wards: A multi-site ethnography

Objective

To explore how nurses in hospitals enact person‐centred fundamental care delivery.

Background

Effective person‐centred care is at the heart of fundamental nursing care, but it is deemed to be challenging in acute health care as there is a strong biomedical focus and most nurses are not trained in person‐centred fundamental care delivery. We therefore need to know if and how nurses currently incorporate a person‐centred approach during fundamental care.

Design

Focused ethnography approach.

Methods

Observations of 30 nurses on three different wards in two Dutch hospitals during their morning shift. Data were collected through passive observations and analysed using framework analysis based on the fundamentals of care framework. The COREQ guideline was used for reporting.

Results

Some nurses successfully integrate physical, psychosocial and relational elements of care in patient interactions. However, most nurses were observed to be mainly focused on physical care and did not take the time at their patients’ bedside to care for their psychosocial and relational needs. Many had a task‐focused way of working and communicating, seldom incorporating patients’ needs and experiences or discussing care planning, and often disturbing each other.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that although some nurses manage to do so, person‐centred fundamental care delivery remains a challenge in hospitals, as most nurses have a task‐focused approach and therefore do not manage to integrate the physical, relational and physical elements of care. For further improvement, attention needs to be paid to integrated fundamental care and clinical reasoning skills.

Relevance to clinical practice

Although most nurses have a compassionate approach, this study shows that nurses do not incorporate psychosocial care or encourage patient participation when helping patients with their physical fundamental care needs, even though there seems to be sufficient opportunity for them to do so.

Interruptions and nursing workload during medication administration process

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the sources and causes of interruptions during the medication administration process performed by a nursing team and measure its frequency, duration and impact on the team's workload.

MÉTODOS

This is an observational study that timed 121 medication rounds (preparation, administration and documentation) performed by 15 nurses and nine nursing technicians in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit in the countryside of the state of São Paulo.

RESULTADOS

63 (52.1%) interruptions were observed. In each round, the number of interruptions that happened ranged from 1-7, for 127 in total; these occurred mainly during the preparation phase, 97 (76.4%). The main interruption sources were: nursing staff - 48 (37.8%) - and self-interruptions - 29 (22.8%). The main causes were: information exchanges - 54 (42.5%) - and parallel conversations - 28 (22%). The increase in the mean time ranged from 53.7 to 64.3% (preparation) and from 18.3 to 19.2% (administration) - p≤0.05.

CONCLUSÃO

Interruptions in the medication process are frequent, interfere in the workload of the nursing team and may reflect on the safety of care.

Interruptions and Delivery of Care in the Intensive Care Unit

OBJECTIVE

This study samples interruption frequency in intensive care unit (ICU) settings to assess the relationship between interruptions and common patient hazards.

BACKGROUND

Task interruptions are accident contributors in numerous industries. Recently, studies on health care interruptions and their impact on patient hazards have received attention.

METHOD

Seven ICUs in four hospitals participated in a 24-month study. Experienced ICU nurses directly observed nursing tasks, interruptions, and patient hazards (delays in care, breaks in device task protocols, and patient safety hazards).

RESULTS

During 1,148 hours of observation, 175 nurses performed 74,733 nursing tasks. Interruptions occurred at a rate of 4.95 per hour, and 8.4% of tasks were interrupted. Interruptions originated mostly from humans (65.9%), alarms (24.1%), and others (10%). A total of 774 patient hazards were observed, with a hazard occurring on average every 89 minutes. Relative to noninterrupted tasks, device alarm interrupted nonstructured tasks were associated with increased rates of delays in care and safety hazards (rate ratio [RR] = 3.19). In contrast, rate of delays in care and safety hazards did not increase during human interrupted tasks (RR = 1.13). Rates of protocol nonadherence varied by device type and were highest during artificial airway, medication administration, chest tube, and supplemental oxygen management.

CONCLUSION

Interruptions in the ICU are frequent and contribute to patient hazards, especially when caused by device alarms during nonstructured tasks. Nonadherence to protocols is common and contributed to patient hazards.

APPLICATION

The findings suggest a need for improvement in task and device design to reduce patient hazards.

Nursing-Related Smartphone Activities in the Italian Nursing Population: A Descriptive Study

In this study, we describe smartphone-related activities for nurses' work and nonwork purposes; analyzed the differences between smartphone use and nurses' age, gender, and working environment; and observed the influences that personal digital devices have on nurses' performance. We conducted a cross-sectional and correlational study. A convenience sample of nurses was recruited, composed of 256 nurses, mostly women (74.6%) younger than 30 years of age (59%). This study showed that the most frequent work-related smartphone activity was searching for work-related drug references. Smartphones also helped nurses reduce work-related stress and improve unit cohesion and teamwork. Younger nurses and male nurses were more likely than female nurses to use their digital devices during healthcare activities. In addition, 42% of nurses reported that they were distracted by the use of smartphones. If smartphones are used properly, they are certainly helpful tools for improving patient safety and enabling communication among healthcare staff. Otherwise, smartphones can constitute an important source of distraction and endanger patient safety.

Interrupções no trabalho da enfermagem como fator de risco para erros de medicação

Objetivo: verificar a associação entre as interrupções e os erros de medicação nas doses preparadas e administradas por profissionais de enfermagem das unidades de internação de clínica médica de dois hospitais públicos localizados no Distrito Federal, Brasil. Método: estudo exploratório, de delineamento transversal e caráter quantitativo realizado em dois hospitais públicos no Distrito Federal, Brasil. A amostra foi de conveniência, sendo 8 profissionais do Hospital 1 e 18 profissionais do Hospital 2. Os dados foram coletados a partir de observação direta e aplicação de questionário e instrumento para identificação dos fatores de risco para erros de medicação. Foram considerados significativos os resultados com valores de p < 0,05 e o índice de confiança estabelecido foi de 95 %.Resultados: em ambos os hospitais verificou-se um perfil majoritariamente de técnicos de enfermagem (H1 = 100 %; H2 = 94,4 %), do sexo feminino (H1 = 75,0 %; H2 = 88,1 %), com idade superior aos 30 anos (H1 = 75,0 %; H2 = 61,0 %). Foram observadas 899 doses no Hospital 1 e Hospital 2, que resultaram em 921 e 648 erros respectivamente, dos quais 464 (53,6 %) no Hospital 1 e 118 (24,4 %) no Hospital 2 estiveram diretamente relacionados à presença de interrupções no trabalho. Cada dose observada sofreu aproximadamente 1,7 erro e percebeu-se uma frequência de aproximadamente 26 (H1) e 16,2 (H2) erros por hora. Conclusões: verifica-se uma forte associação entre as interrupções no trabalho da equipe de enfermagem e os erros de medicação nas unidades de internação estudadas, caracterizando as interrupções como importante fator de risco.

Interruptions during intravenous medication administration: A multicentre observational study

AIMS

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and cause of interruptions during intravenous medication administration, which factors are associated with interruptions and to what extent interruptions influence protocol compliance.

BACKGROUND

Hospital nurses are frequently interrupted during medication administration, which contributes to the occurrence of administration errors. Errors with intravenous medication are especially worrisome, given their immediate therapeutic effects. However, knowledge about the extent and type of interruptions during intravenous medication administration is limited.

DESIGN

Multicentre observational study.

METHODS

Data were collected during two national evaluation studies (2011 - 2012 & 2015 - 2016). Nurses were directly observed during intravenous medication administration. An interruption was defined as a situation where a break during the administration was needed or where a nurse was distracted but could process without a break. Interruptions were categorized according to source and cause. Multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess the associations between explanatory variables and interruptions or complete protocol compliance.

RESULTS

In total, 2,526 intravenous medication administration processes were observed. During 291 (12%) observations, nurses were interrupted 321 times. Most interruptions were externally initiated by other nurses (19%) or patients (19%). Less interruptions occurred during the evening (odds ratio: 0.23 [95% confidence interval: 0.08-0.62]). Do-not-disturb vests were worn by 61 (2%) nurses. No significant association was found between being interrupted and complete protocol compliance.

CONCLUSION

An interruption occurred in every eight observed intravenous medication administration, mainly caused by other nurses or patients. One needs to consider critically which strategies effectively improve safety during the high-risk nursing-task of intravenous medication administration.

A qualitative study of nurses' perceptions of a behavioural strategies e-learning program to reduce interruptions during medication administration

OBJECTIVES

We sought to evaluate the perceptions of nurses of an e-learning educational program to encourage the use of behavioural strategies-blocking, engaging, mediating, multitasking, and preventing-to reduce the negative effects of interruptions during medication administration.

DESIGN

A qualitative design was used to evaluate the impact of this e-learning educational intervention on nurses' behaviour.

SETTINGS

Two wards (palliative care and aged care) from two different hospitals within a large local health service within Sydney Australia, were included in the study. These wards were also involved in a cluster randomised trial to test the effectiveness of the program.

PARTICIPANTS

A purposive sample participated comprising nine registered and enrolled nurses certified to conduct medication administration, who had reviewed the educational modules.

METHODS

Two focus groups were conducted and these sessions were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis identified seven themes.

RESULTS

The major themes identified included: perceptions of interruptions, accessing the program, content of the program, impact, maintaining good practice and facilitators and barriers to changing behaviour.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of embedded authentic images of patient interruptions and management strategies increased some nurses' perceived use of strategies to manage interruptions. Nurses varied in their perception as to whether they could change their behaviour with some describing change at the individual and ward team levels, while others described patient caseload and other health professionals as a barrier. The use of this innovative educational intervention is recommended for staff orientation, student nurses, medical officers and allied health staff. Further research is required in how this e-learning program can be used in combination with other effective interventions to reduce interruptions.

A Standardized Handoff Simulation Promotes Recovery From Auditory Distractions in Resident Physicians

INTRODUCTION

Despite the increasing use of training simulations to teach and assess resident handoffs, simulations that approximate realistic hospital conditions with distractions are lacking. This study explores the effects of a novel simulation-based training intervention on resident handoff performance in the face of prevalent hospital interruptions.

METHODS

After a preliminary educational module, entering postgraduate year 1 residents (interns) completed one of the following three handoff simulations: (1) no interruption, (2) hospital noise, or (3) noise and pager interruptions. Trained receivers rated interns using an evidence-based Handoff Behaviors Checklist and a previously validated Handoff Mini-Clinical Examination Exercise instrument.

RESULTS

Of 127 eligible interns, 125 (98.4%) completed an online preparatory module and a handoff simulation. Interns receiving auditory interruptions were less likely to be heard adequately (48.8% noise and 71.8% noise + pager vs. 100.0% uninterrupted, P < 0.001) and scored lower on establishing appropriate handoff settings (5.7 ± 2.3 noise and 6.2 ± 1.8 noise + pager vs. 8.0 ± 0.8 uninterrupted, P < 0.001). Interns receiving noise only shared a written sign-out document more effectively (71.1% vs. 30.2% uninterrupted and 43.6% noise + pager, P < 0.001). There were no differences in averaged performance metrics on the Handoff Behaviors Checklist.

DISCUSSION

While common hospital interruptions created nonideal circumstances for the handoff, interns receiving interruptions were rated similarly and recovered effectively. However, interns exposed to noise only used the written sign-out form more actively. Our findings suggest that this intervention was successful in promoting handoff proficiency despite exposure to common but significant hospital interruptions.

Applying social network analysis to the examination of interruptions in healthcare

Examinations of interruptions in healthcare often focus on a single clinical discipline, and solutions are targeted accordingly. This approach does not take into account the inter-disciplinary dependencies and other sociotechnical aspects that make up the healthcare work system, and suggested solutions may not meet the needs of all stakeholders. In this article a sociotechnical systems perspective is used to uncover the interdependencies between 16 unique work roles that result in interruptions in an intensive care unit (ICU). By applying social network analysis techniques to data collected using the Dual Perspectives Method, we identified targeted systems-based interventions that may reduce unnecessary interruptions while avoiding unintended consequences that impose additional burden on ICU staff. The rich insights gained into the interruptive communication patterns in the ICU work system stand in contrast to findings that would have otherwise been obtained by focusing only on a single clinical discipline or a single perspective.

Impact of Interruptions, Distractions, and Cognitive Load on Procedure Failures and Medication Administration Errors

Medication administration errors are difficult to intercept since they occur at the end of the process. The study describes interruptions, distractions, and cognitive load experienced by registered nurses during medication administration and explores their impact on procedure failures and medication administration errors. The focus of this study was unique as it investigated how known individual and environmental factors interacted and culminated in errors.

Nurses' Perceived Skills and Attitudes About Updated Safety Concepts: Impact on Medication Administration Errors and Practices

Approximately a quarter of medication errors in the hospital occur at the administration phase, which is solely under the purview of the bedside nurse. The purpose of this study was to assess bedside nurses' perceived skills and attitudes about updated safety concepts and examine their impact on medication administration errors and adherence to safe medication administration practices. Findings support the premise that medication administration errors result from an interplay among system-, unit-, and nurse-level factors.

Effectiveness of an improvement programme to prevent interruptions during medication administration in a paediatric hospital: a preintervention-postintervention study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effectiveness of an improvement programme to reduce the number of interruptions during the medication administration process in a paediatric hospital.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A prestudy-post study design was used to monitor nursing interruptions during medication cycles in a paediatric hospital. Interruptions were reported on an observation sheet (MADOS-P) adapted to the paediatric context.

SETTING

A 600-bed tertiary paediatric research hospital in Italy.

INTERVENTION

The interventions included a yellow sash worn by nurses during medication cycles, a yellow-taped floor area indicating the 'No interruption area', visual notices in the medication areas, education sessions for healthcare providers and families, patient and parent information material.

RESULTS

225 medication cycles were observed before the intervention (T0) and 261 after the intervention (T1). The median of interruptions occurring in each cycle decreased significantly from baseline to postintervention (8.0 vs 2.0, p=0.002), as the rate ratios (interruptions/patient post-pre ratio: 0.34; interruptions/medication post-pre ratio: 0.37; interruptions/hour of medication cycle post-pre ratio: 0.53, p<0.001). During preintervention, the main causes of interruptions were 'other patients' (19.9%), 'other nurses' (17.2%) and 'conversation' (15.7%); during postintervention, they were 'other nurses' (26.1%), 'conversation' (18.2%) and 'other patients' (17.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

This bundle of interventions proved to be an effective improvement programme to prevent interruptions during medication administration in a paediatric context.

Traditions of research into interruptions in healthcare: A conceptual review

BACKGROUND

Researchers from diverse theoretical backgrounds have studied workplace interruptions in healthcare, leading to a complex and conflicting body of literature. Understanding pre-existing viewpoints may advance the field more effectively than attempts to remove bias from investigations.

OBJECTIVE

To identify research traditions that have motivated and guided interruptions research, and to note research questions posed, gaps in approach, and possible avenues for future research.

METHODS

A critical review was conducted of research on interruptions in healthcare. Two researchers identified core research communities based on the community's motivations, philosophical outlook, and methods. Among the characteristics used to categorise papers into research communities were the predominant motivation for studying interruptions, the research questions posed, and key contributions to the body of knowledge on interruptions in healthcare. In cases where a paper approached an equal number of characteristics from two traditions, it was placed in a blended research community.

RESULTS

A total of 141 papers were identified and categorised; all papers identified were published from 1994 onwards. Four principal research communities emerged: epidemiology, quality improvement, cognitive systems engineering (CSE), and applied cognitive psychology. Blends and areas of mutual influence between the research communities were identified that combine the benefits of individual traditions, but there was a notable lack of blends incorporating quality improvement initiatives. The question most commonly posed by researchers across multiple communities was: what is the impact of interruptions? Impact was measured as a function of task time or risk in the epidemiology tradition, situation awareness in the CSE tradition, or resumption lag (time to resume an interrupted task) in the applied cognitive psychology tradition. No single question about interruptions in healthcare was shared by all four of the core communities.

CONCLUSIONS

Much research on workplace interruptions in healthcare can be described in terms of fundamental values of four distinct research traditions and the communities that bring the values and methods: of those research traditions to their investigations. Blends between communities indicate that mutual influence has occurred as interruptions research has progressed. It is clear from this review that there is no single or privileged perspective to study interruptions. Instead, these findings suggest that researchers investigating interruptions in healthcare would benefit from being more aware of different perspectives from their own, especially when they consider workplace interventions to reduce interruptions.