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Wang R, Carson KA, Sao SS, Coleman JS. Association of Neighborhood Economic Status and Race With Developing Pelvic Inflammatory Disease After Sexually Transmitted Infections. Obstet Gynecol 2023; 142:948-955. [PMID: 37734094 PMCID: PMC10510783 DOI: 10.1097/aog.0000000000005341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the association of neighborhood-level socioeconomic status (SES) and race with developing pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) after sexually transmitted infection (STI) among female adolescents and young adults in Maryland. METHODS We used Maryland statewide hospital claims data (outpatient and inpatient visits) for this retrospective cohort study. Female adolescents and young adults aged 15-24 years who had at least one STI from July 1, 2013, to March 31, 2015, were included. A participant entered the cohort on the date of the first STI diagnosis and was followed up until PID occurrence or 3 years after the first STI. Median household income of the participant's residential ZIP code tabulation area was used as the neighborhood-level SES. Discrete-time hazard models were used to estimate the hazard of PID. RESULTS Of the 2,873 participants, 88.5% were of Black race, and 67.2% were aged 20-24 years. The hazard of PID after an STI among Black women was 1.40 times that of White women (95% CI 1.06-1.85). After adjustment for age, insurance type, and number of STI events, the hazard ratio (HR) did not change. However, adding neighborhood-level SES to the model attenuated the disparity in PID after STI between Black and White women (HR 1.25, 95% CI 0.94-1.67). CONCLUSION Racial disparities in PID diagnosis are mitigated by neighborhood-level SES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runzhi Wang
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and the Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Collar AL, Clarke TN, Jamus AN, Frietze KM. Ensuring equity with pre-clinical planning for chlamydia vaccines. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:131. [PMID: 37673890 PMCID: PMC10482967 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00726-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) remains the most common bacterial sexually transmitted pathogen worldwide, causing significant morbidity particularly among women, including pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and infertility. Several vaccines are advancing through pre-clinical and clinical development, and it is likely that one or more vaccines will progress into human efficacy trials soon. In this Perspective, we present a case for considering the challenges of Ct vaccine development through a lens of equity and justice. These challenges include the need to protect against multiple serovars, in both females and males, at multiple anatomic sites, and in resource poor areas of the world. We propose that early consideration of vaccine implementation by conducting community-engaged research will ensure that a scientifically sound chlamydia vaccine promotes equity, justice, and shared-gendered responsibility for STI prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Collar
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Tegan N Clarke
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Andzoa N Jamus
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Kathryn M Frietze
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
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Wang J, Wang K. New insights into Chlamydia pathogenesis: Role of leukemia inhibitory factor. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1029178. [PMID: 36329823 PMCID: PMC9623337 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1029178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections worldwide. Since the symptoms of Ct infection are often subtle or absent, most people are unaware of their infection until they are tested or develop severe complications such as infertility. It is believed that the primary culprit of Ct-associated tissue damage is unresolved chronic inflammation, resulting in aberrant production of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors, as well as dysregulated tissue influx of innate and adaptive immune cells. A member of the IL-6 cytokine family, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), is one of the cytokines induced by Ct infection but its role in Ct pathogenesis is unclear. In this article, we review the biology of LIF and LIF receptor (LIFR)-mediated signaling pathways, summarize the physiological role of LIF in the reproductive system, and discuss the impact of LIF in chronic inflammatory conditions and its implication in Ct pathogenesis. Under normal circumstances, LIF is produced to maintain epithelial homeostasis and tissue repair, including the aftermath of Ct infection. However, LIF/LIFR-mediated signaling – particularly prolonged strong signaling – can gradually transform the microenvironment of the fallopian tube by altering the fate of epithelial cells and the cellular composition of epithelium. This harmful transformation of epithelium may be a key process that leads to an enhanced risk of infertility, ectopic pregnancy and cancer following Ct infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Halifax, NS, Canada
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Halifax, NS, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
- Izaak Walton Killam (IWK) Health Centre, Halifax, NS, Canada
- *Correspondence: Jun Wang,
| | - Katherine Wang
- Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Halifax, NS, Canada
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Greydanus DE, Cabral MD, Patel DR. Pelvic inflammatory disease in the adolescent and young adult: An update. Dis Mon 2021; 68:101287. [PMID: 34521505 DOI: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2021.101287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the female upper genital tract that is typically polymicrobial with classic core involvement of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and/or Chlamydia trachomatis, though other endogenous flora from the vagino-cervical areas can be involved as well. It is often a sexually transmitted disease but other etiologic routes are also noted. A variety of risk factors have been identified including adolescence, young adulthood, adolescent cervical ectropion, multiple sexual partners, immature immune system, history of previous PID, risky contraceptive practices and others. An early diagnosis and prompt treatment are necessary to reduce risks of PID complications such as chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. Current management principles of PID are also reviewed. It is important for clinicians to screen sexually active females for common sexually transmitted infections such as Chlamydia trachomatis and provide safer sex education to their adolescent and young adult patients. Clinicians should provide comprehensive management to persons with PID and utilize established guidelines such as those from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald E Greydanus
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University, Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine, 1000 Oakland Drive, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 49008, United States of America.
| | - Maria Demma Cabral
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University, Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine, 1000 Oakland Drive, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 49008, United States of America.
| | - Dilip R Patel
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University, Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine, 1000 Oakland Drive, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 49008, United States of America.
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Hopkins D, Wilson C, Allard R. Sexually Transmitted Infections in U.S. Military Women: A Scoping Review 2000-2018. Womens Health Issues 2021; 31 Suppl 1:S43-S52. [PMID: 34454703 DOI: 10.1016/j.whi.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE High rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have been documented among U.S. military servicemembers. The purpose of this scoping review is to evaluate the literature to determine what is known about the risk factors, preventive measures, and health outcomes regarding STIs among active duty servicewomen. METHODS A search of six bibliographic databases and the grey literature identified articles published from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2018. A two-level review process was used to evaluate the inclusion of articles. RESULTS Fifty-six articles were included. The majority of studies (n = 47) were descriptive (95%). The primary STIs of focus were chlamydia (66%) and gonorrhea (38%), with a lesser focus on herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (17%) and syphilis (11%). There were no studies on chancroid or pubic lice. Chlamydia and gonorrhea were highly prevalent. Age, race, and gender were nonmodifiable risk factors, whereas behaviors, beliefs, socioeconomic level, marital status, and concomitant or repeat infections were modifiable risk factors. Educational programs and studies evaluating efficacious STI prevention methods were lacking. STI diagnoses occurred in servicewomen at their home stations as well as in deployed settings. CONCLUSION STIs remain an ongoing public health challenge with insufficient research to guide military and health care leaders. Future research should focus on prospective designs that leverage identified risk factors and at-risk populations where the most impact can be made to promote reproductive health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawnkimberly Hopkins
- David Grant Medical Center, Clinical Investigation Facility, Travis AFB, Fairfield, California.
| | - Candy Wilson
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Daniel K. Inouye Graduate School of Nursing, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Rhonda Allard
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, James A. Zimble Learning Resources Center, Bethesda, Maryland
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Turpin R, Tuddenham S, He X, Klebanoff MA, Ghanem KG, Brotman RM. Bacterial Vaginosis and Behavioral Factors Associated With Incident Pelvic Inflammatory Disease in the Longitudinal Study of Vaginal Flora. J Infect Dis 2021; 224:S137-S144. [PMID: 34396403 PMCID: PMC8499701 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiab103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) leads to long-term reproductive consequences for cisgender women. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) and behavioral factors may play a role in PID pathogenesis. We assessed associations between BV, behavioral factors, and incident PID. METHODS We analyzed participants (N = 2956) enrolled in the National Institutes of Health Longitudinal Study of Vaginal Flora, a cohort of nonpregnant cisgender women followed quarterly for 12 months. PID was defined by at least 1 of the following: cervical motion tenderness, uterine tenderness, or adnexal tenderness (160 cases). We tested associations between BV (measured using Nugent and Amsel criteria) and PID at the subsequent visit. Sociodemographic factors, sexual behaviors, and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), untreated at baseline and concurrent with BV, were covariates in Cox proportional hazards models. Adjusting for the few Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Trichomonas vaginalis cases did not alter results. RESULTS In multivariable modeling, Nugent-BV (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 1.53 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.05-2.21]), symptomatic Amsel-BV (aHR, 2.15 [95% CI, 1.23-3.75]), and vaginal douching (aHR, 1.47 [95% CI, 1.03-2.09]) were associated with incident PID. CONCLUSIONS BV was associated with incident PID in a large prospective cohort, controlling for behavioral factors and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Larger studies on how BV, STIs, behaviors, and host responses interactively affect PID risk are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodman Turpin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of
Public Health, University of Maryland at College Park,
College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Susan Tuddenham
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland,
USA
| | - Xin He
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of
Public Health, University of Maryland at College Park,
College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Mark A Klebanoff
- Center for Perinatal Research, Nationwide Children’s
Hospital, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Khalil G Ghanem
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland,
USA
| | - Rebecca M Brotman
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University
of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA,Institute for Genome Sciences, Department of Epidemiology
and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine,
Baltimore, Maryland, USA,Correspondence: Rebecca M. Brotman, PhD, MPH, Institute for Genome
Sciences, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland
School of Medicine, 670 W Baltimore St, Room 3175, Baltimore, MD 21201 ()
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Kumar S, Chesson H, Spicknall IH, Kreisel K, Gift TL. The Estimated Lifetime Medical Cost of Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, and Trichomoniasis in the United States, 2018. Sex Transm Dis 2021; 48:238-246. [PMID: 33492090 PMCID: PMC10440745 DOI: 10.1097/olq.0000000000001357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to provide updated estimates of the average lifetime medical cost per infection for chlamydia, gonorrhea, and trichomoniasis. METHODS We adapted a published decision tree model that allowed for 7 possible outcomes of infection: (1) symptomatic infection, treated, no sequelae; (2) symptomatic infection, not treated, sequelae; (3) symptomatic infection, not treated, no sequelae; (4) asymptomatic infection, treated, sequelae; (5) asymptomatic infection, treated, no sequelae; (6) asymptomatic infection, not treated, sequelae; and (7) asymptomatic infection, not treated, no sequelae. The base case values and ranges we applied for the model inputs (i.e., the probability and cost assumptions) were based on published studies. RESULTS The estimated lifetime medical costs per infection for men and women, respectively, were $46 (95% credibility interval, $32-$62) and $262 ($127-$483) for chlamydia, $78 ($36-$145) and $254 ($96-$518) for gonorrhea, and $5 ($1-$14) and $36 ($17-$58) for trichomoniasis. Cost estimates for men were most sensitive to assumptions regarding the probability that the infection is symptomatic, the probability of treatment if asymptomatic, and the cost of treatment of infection. Cost estimates for chlamydia and gonorrhea in women were most sensitive to assumptions regarding the probability and cost of subsequent pelvic inflammatory disease. CONCLUSIONS These estimates of the lifetime medical cost per infection can inform updated estimates of the total annual cost of sexually transmitted infections in the United States, as well as analyses of the value and cost-effectiveness of sexually transmitted infection prevention interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagar Kumar
- Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
- Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
| | - Harrell Chesson
- Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ian H. Spicknall
- Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kristen Kreisel
- Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Thomas L. Gift
- Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Improving Women's Health and Combatting Sexually Transmitted Infections Through Expedited Partner Therapy. Obstet Gynecol 2019; 133:416-422. [PMID: 30741802 DOI: 10.1097/aog.0000000000003088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections (STI), including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, have reached record high rates in the United States. Sexually transmitted infections disproportionately affect reproductive-aged females aged 15-44 years, who account for 65% and 42% of the total reported C trachomatis and N gonorrhoeae cases, respectively. Undiagnosed STIs can result in serious health complications that put women at an increased risk for pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and tubal factor infertility. Many of these women are seen by physicians (eg, obstetrician-gynecologists, family medicine doctors, pediatricians) or other clinicians (eg, nurse practitioners, midwives, physician assistants) who care for women. These clinicians have the opportunity to help curb the continued increase in STI incidence rates with the implementation and use of expedited partner therapy. Expedited partner therapy is a proven effective health care practice that allows clinicians to give patients medications or prescriptions to distribute to their partners. Despite expedited partner therapy's proven effectiveness, there are barriers to its implementation that must be understood to enhance STI treatment and prevention efforts. In this commentary, we discuss these barriers, and appeal to women's health clinicians to implement or increase use of expedited partner therapy for the treatment of women with STIs and their sexual partners.
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den Heijer CDJ, Hoebe CJPA, Driessen JHM, Wolffs P, van den Broek IVF, Hoenderboom BM, Williams R, de Vries F, Dukers-Muijrers NHTM. Chlamydia trachomatis and the Risk of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, Ectopic Pregnancy, and Female Infertility: A Retrospective Cohort Study Among Primary Care Patients. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 69:1517-1525. [PMID: 31504315 PMCID: PMC6792126 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciz429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We evaluated the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), ectopic pregnancy, and infertility in women with a previous Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) diagnosis compared with women who tested negative for CT and CT untested women, considering both targeted and incidental (ie, prescribed for another indication) use of CT-effective antibiotics. METHODS This was a retrospective study of women aged 12-25 years at start of follow-up within the Clinical Practice Research Datalink GOLD database linked to index of multiple deprivation quintiles, 2000-2013. CT test status and antibiotic use were determined in a time-dependent manner. Risk of PID, ectopic pregnancy, or female infertility were evaluated using of Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS We studied 857 324 women, contributing 6 457 060 person-years. Compared with women who tested CT-negative, women who tested CT-positive had an increased risk of PID (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 2.36; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.01-2.79), ectopic pregnancy (aHR, 1.87; 95% CI, 1.38-2.54), and infertility (aHR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.27-2.68). The PID risk was higher for women with 2 or more positive CT tests than those with 1 positive test. PID risk increased with the number of previous antibiotic prescriptions, regardless of CT test status. CONCLUSIONS We showed an association between CT-positive tests and 3 adverse reproductive health outcomes. Moreover, this risk increased with repeat CT infections. CT-effective antibiotic use showed no decreased risks of subsequent PID regardless of CT history. Our results confirm the reproductive health burden of CT, which requires adequate public health interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper D J den Heijer
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Heerlen
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Heerlen
| | - Christian J P A Hoebe
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Heerlen
- Department of Medical Microbiology,Care and Public Health Research Institute (CAPHRI), Maastricht University Medical Center+ (MUMC+), Maastricht
| | - Johanna H M Driessen
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Heerlen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Toxicology CAPHRI, School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, MUMC+, Maastricht
| | - Petra Wolffs
- Department of Medical Microbiology,Care and Public Health Research Institute (CAPHRI), Maastricht University Medical Center+ (MUMC+), Maastricht
| | - Ingrid V F van den Broek
- Epidemiology and Surveillance Unit, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Bernice M Hoenderboom
- Epidemiology and Surveillance Unit, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Rachael Williams
- Clinical Practice Research Datalink, Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, London, United Kingdom
| | - Frank de Vries
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Heerlen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Toxicology CAPHRI, School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, MUMC+, Maastricht
| | - Nicole H T M Dukers-Muijrers
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Heerlen
- Department of Medical Microbiology,Care and Public Health Research Institute (CAPHRI), Maastricht University Medical Center+ (MUMC+), Maastricht
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