Scleral Lens–Induced Corneal Edema after Penetrating Keratoplasty

Bibliometric and Visual Analysis of the Status of Scleral Lens Research Based on the Web of Science Database and Scopus Database (2014-2024)

Objective

To examine the current status of research, identify key areas of interest, and explore emerging frontiers in the field of scleral lenses (SL) with the goal of informing and advancing further research in this field.

Methods

Bibliometric methods were utilized to retrieve SL-related literature published in the Web of Science and Scopus database from 2014 to 2024. Elements such as authors, country/region, institution, journal, and keywords were analyzed using CiteSpace information visualization and analysis software and Bibliometrix R package.

Results

A total of 506 articles were included. Among 117 countries/regions, the United States ranked first in the number of publications, followed by Spain and Australia. The distribution of research institutions showed that the Queensland University of Technology had the largest number of publications. Prof. Schornack, MM from Mayo Clinic had the highest number of articles. The research literature on SLwas published in 184 journals, of which Contact Lens & Anterior Eye and Eye & Contact Lens: Science and Clinical Practice were the most influential. Keyword clustering mainly included corneal topography, dry eye, limbal stem cell deficiency, ocular surface disease.

Conclusion

SL has emerged as a prominent area of investigation in the field of ophthalmology. In this study, the research field of SL from 2014 to 2024 was visualized and analyzed, providing a visualization of the development status of SL and revealing the trends and cutting-edge hotspots of SL-related research. SL exhibits a broad spectrum of applications and demonstrates considerable potential for enhancing both visual acuity and overall quality of life in patients afflicted with diverse ocular conditions. This study offers a comprehensive overview of current state of knowledge and understanding on SL for researchers and clinicians.

Contact lenses for visual rehabilitation in post-keratoplasty eyes: A systematic review

PURPOSE

To evaluate the role of contact lenses (CLs) in visual rehabilitation following keratoplasty.

METHODS

Four databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase were systematically searched for studies published between January 2010 and July 2023. Visual outcomes, daily wearing duration, subjective comfort, rate and etiology of CL discontinuation, corneal endothelial cell density, central corneal thickness, and complications were extracted.

RESULTS

This review included thirteen case series and two chart reviews, analyzing a total of 464 eyes, of which 97% underwent penetrating keratoplasty. Scleral CLs were the most frequently fitted lens (285 eyes, 61%). All studies reported a significant improvement in visual acuity with CL correction. Most post-keratoplasty patients could wear CLs comfortably for 8 to 12 h/day. The rate of CL dropout ranged from 0% to 39%, mainly due to CL intolerance, discomfort, and graft rejection. Corneal graft rejection (18 eyes), conjunctival hyperemia (8 eyes), corneal epithelial trauma (5 eyes), graft edema (4 eyes), and microbial keratitis (3 eyes) were the most frequently reported complications.

CONCLUSION

CLs are effective for improving visual acuity following keratoplasty, with minor complications depending on the type of CL.

The Impact of Corneal Oedema on UV Light Transmission: An Experimental Study in Porcine Eyes

Background/Objectives: Corneal oedema is known for changing the cornea's optical properties, particularly its ability to transmit ultraviolet (UV) light, which is crucial for visual clarity and eye health. This study explores how changes in corneal thickness in oedematous states affect UV light transmission. Methods: This study included 107 porcine eyes with artificially induced corneal oedema. Corneal thickness (CCT) was measured histologically, UV transmittance was assessed using a UV/VIS spectrometer, and endothelial cell parameters were evaluated with specular microscopy. Statistical analyses included the Kruskal-Wallis test, Mann-Whitney U test, and Spearman's correlation. Results: The findings indicated a significant increase in CCT in oedematous corneas at 24 and 48 h post extraction compared to controls, with median CCT values of 816.59 ± 139.71 μm for controls, 1022.40 ± 234.48 μm at 24 h, and 1074.21 ± 220.83 μm at 48 h (p < 0.001). UV transmittance (395-280 nm) decreased substantially, dropping from 50.79 ± 7.65% in controls to 43.24 ± 5.35% at 24 h and 39.66 ± 6.51% at 48 h (p < 0.001). There was a significant negative correlation between CCT and UV transmittance (ρ = -0.346, p < 0.001). Endothelial parameters showed notable changes: maximum cell area (AreaMAX) decreased at 24 and 48 h, while endothelial cell density (ECD) increased at 24 h. Conclusions: Our study found a substantial inverse link between CCT and UV light transmission in oedematous corneas, highlighting the importance of UV protection, especially in individuals who are prone to recurrent oedema. Changes in CCT and endothelial measures, such as AreaMAX and ECD, are useful signs of corneal integrity. However, the study's small sample size and potential tissue modifications during processing need more research with bigger, in vivo samples to corroborate these findings and improve therapeutic use.

Contact lens fenestrations and channels in relation to tear exchange and corneal oedema

Oxygen delivery and tear exchange are considered essential to maintain corneal homoeostasis during contact lens wear. Since the 1940s, fenestrations and back surface channels have been utilised in scleral, corneal rigid, and soft contact lenses in an attempt to enhance corneal oxygen transmission, facilitate the removal of carbon dioxide from the post-lens tear layer, minimise corneal oedema and prevent post-lens tear stagnation. This review examines the use of contact lens fenestrations and channels in both clinical and laboratory settings, and the effect of these modifications upon tear exchange and corneal oedema. Despite almost a century of modifying contact lenses to alter tear dynamics and promote corneal health, the evidence regarding the efficacy of fenestrations and channels is mixed.

The effect of landing zone toricity on scleral lens fitting characteristics and optics

PURPOSE

The fit and optical performance of a scleral lens is affected by the alignment of the landing zone with the underlying ocular surface. The aim of this research was to quantify the effect of landing zone toricity upon scleral lens fitting characteristics (rotation and decentration) and optics (lens flexure) during short-term wear.

METHODS

Scleral lenses with nominal landing zone toricities of 0, 100, 150 and 200 μm were worn in a randomised order by 10 young healthy participants (mean [SD] 24 [7] years) for 30 min, with other lens parameters held constant. Scleral toricity was quantified using a corneo-scleral profilometer, and lens flexure, rotation, and decentration were quantified using over-topography during lens wear. Repeated measures analyses were conducted as a function of landing zone toricity and residual scleral toricity (the difference between scleral and lens toricity) for eyes with 'low' magnitude scleral toricity (mean: 96 μm) and 'high' magnitude scleral toricity (mean: 319 μm).

RESULTS

Toric landing zones significantly reduced lens flexure (by 0.37 [0.21] D, p < 0.05) and lens rotation (by 20 [24]°, p < 0.05) compared with a spherical landing zone. Horizontal and vertical lens decentration did not vary significantly with landing zone toricity. These trends for flexure, rotation, and decentration were also observed for eyes with 'low' and 'high' magnitude scleral toricity as a function of residual scleral toricity.

CONCLUSION

Landing zones with 100-200 μm toricity significantly reduced lens flexure (by ~62%) and rotation (by ~77%) but not horizontal or vertical lens decentration, compared with a spherical landing zone, when controlling for other confounding variables. The incorporation of a toric landing zone, even for eyes with lower magnitude scleral toricity (~100 μm), may be beneficial, particularly for front surface optical designs.

Scleral lens induced short term corneal changes in eyes with Pellucid Marginal Degeneration

PURPOSE

To investigate the short-term effect of scleral lens (SL) on corneal curvature and corneal oedema in Pellucid Marginal Degeneration (PMD) eyes.

METHODS

Corneal anterior, posterior curvature and corneal thickness were measured in 14 eyes of 14 PMD participants with Schiempflug imaging at different corneal diameters and meridians at baseline and after 6 h of SL wear.

RESULTS

There was a significant flattening (up to 0.26 mm) of the anterior corneal curvature noted in the inferotemporal quadrant (from 210 to 255 degree at 2 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm corneal diameter), inferonasal quadrant (from 285 to 345 degree at 6 mm and 8 mm corneal diameter), and inferiorly at 2 mm and 10 mm corneal diameter (p < 0.05). Similarly, posterior corneal curvature showed statistically significant steepening mostly in inferotemporal quadrants (from 195 to 255 degree from 4 mm to 8 mm corneal diameter) and inferonasally at 2 mm and 4 mm corneal diameter (p < 0.05). A statistically significant increase in the corneal thickness noted in different corneal diameters with corneal oedema ranging from 2.10 % to 4.00 % after 6 h of SL wear. A gradual increase in corneal oedema was noted form centre to periphery. The baseline central fluid reservoir thickness (FRT) was 341.07 ± 139.8 which reduced to 276.71 ± 114.32 µm after 6 h of lens wear. No significant correlation was noted between corneal oedema with different parameters like initial and final FRT, change in anterior and posterior corneal curvature, and lens thickness (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term SL wear induced a clinically acceptable range of corneal oedema. A clinically significant flattening in anterior curvature and minimal steepening in posterior curvature were noted. Practitioners should be careful while measuring corneal parameters in PMD eyes wearing SL, as these alterations can provide false impression of disease progression.

Central and peripheral scleral lens-induced corneal oedema

PURPOSE

To quantify the magnitude of central and peripheral scleral lens-induced corneal oedema for a range of fluid reservoir thicknesses, and to compare these experimental results with theoretical models of corneal oedema both with and without limbal metabolic support (i.e., the lateral transport of metabolites and the influence of the limbal vasculature).

METHODS

Ten young healthy participants wore scleral lenses (KATT™, Capricornia Contact Lenses) fitted with low (mean 141 μm), medium (482 μm) and high (718 μm) central fluid reservoir thickness values across three separate study visits. The scleral lens thickness, fluid reservoir thickness and stromal corneal oedema were measured using optical coherence tomography. Oedema was quantified across the central (0-2.5 mm from the corneal apex) and peripheral (1.25-3 mm from the scleral spur) cornea. Experimental data were compared with published theoretical models of central to peripheral corneal oedema.

RESULTS

Stromal oedema varied with fluid reservoir thickness (p < 0.001) for both central and peripheral regions. The mean (standard deviation) stromal oedema was greater for the medium (2.08 (1.21)%) and high (2.22 (1.31)%) fluid reservoir thickness conditions compared to the low condition (1.00 (1.01)%) (p ≤ 0.01). Stromal oedema gradually increased from the corneal centre to the periphery by ~0.3% on average (relative increase of 18%), but the change did not reach statistical significance. This trend of increasing, rather than decreasing, oedema towards the limbus is consistent with theoretical modelling of peripheral oedema without metabolic support from the limbus.

CONCLUSIONS

The central and peripheral cornea displayed a similar magnitude of oedema, with increasing levels observed for medium and high fluid reservoir thicknesses. The gradual increase in oedema towards the limbus is consistent with a 'without limbal metabolic support' theoretical model.

High Astigmatism Secondary to Peripheral Ectasia Recurrence in Postpenetrating Keratoplasty Eyes Managed With Miniscleral Contact Lenses

OBJECTIVES

After penetrating keratoplasty (PK) for keratoconus, vision can be impaired by high-degree astigmatism, particularly in those patients with recurrent peripheral ectasia. Scleral contact lenses (CLs) have long been used in the management of keratoconus both in treatment-naive corneas and those postcorneal transplants. We report the use of miniscleral CLs and their related visual and clinical outcomes in a series of patients with post-PK peripheral rim ectasia.

METHODS

In this retrospective case series, 5 patients (7 eyes) presented because of reduced visual acuity with their spectacles/CLs and/or reduced comfort with their existing rigid gas-permeable lenses. All patients in this series underwent PK more than two decades ago for keratoconus (mean 28.7 years±7.2). All patients demonstrated characteristic thinning at the graft-host junction, with anterior chamber deepening. Central corneas had remained clear in all patients inferring high visual potential. Contact lenses used were No 7 Comfort 15 miniscleral and the Onefit MED scleral with 14.5 mm and 15.6 mm diameters, respectively.

RESULTS

All eyes achieved a best-corrected visual acuity of 6/9 or greater. One case had difficulty with insertion and removal and has since discontinued wearing lens at this time. All others are successfully wearing the lenses regularly.

CONCLUSION

Despite advances in CL design, surgical management is still required in some patients. Miniscleral CLs are effective in the refractive management of peripheral ectasia in keratoconic post-PK eyes and should be considered in such eyes before proceeding with repeat surgical intervention.

Early Postoperative Therapeutic Scleral Lens Intervention for Penetrating Keratoplasty Complications in Atopic Keratoconjunctivitis

ABSTRACT

A 52-year-old white man with keratoconus and severe atopic keratoconjunctivitis underwent penetrating keratoplasty (PK) for visual rehabilitation in the left eye. Post-PK complications included a persistent epithelial defect. Therapeutic scleral lens wear was initiated 2 weeks post-PK. Customizations were incorporated into the lens design to prevent suction and corneal hypoxia during lens wear. Post-PK herpes epithelial keratitis developed shortly thereafter, causing recurrence of a nonhealing epithelial defect. The patient was treated with oral antiviral therapy, discontinuation of dupilumab, and daily waking-hour scleral lens wear, which was used as an antibiotic drug delivery device. The cornea fully epithelialized, and best-corrected visual acuity improved to 20/40-2. The patient continued with daily waking-hour scleral lens wear and was without recurrence of persistent epithelial defect or herpes keratitis at 18 months. No scleral lens-related complications were observed despite the unconventional early intervention with a therapeutic scleral lens.

Corneal Biomechanics and Intraocular Pressure Following Scleral Lens Wear in Penetrating Keratoplasty and Keratoconus

OBJECTIVE

To compare corneal biomechanics and intraocular pressure (IOP) in keratoconus and penetrating keratoplasty eyes before and after nonfenestrated scleral lens wear.

METHODS

Twenty-three participants were enrolled, and 37 eyes were included in the analysis (11 penetrating keratoplasty and 26 keratoconus). A range of corneal biomechanical parameters and IOP were measured using the CORVIS ST before and after 8 hr of nonfenestrated scleral lens wear (Keracare, Acculens, Denver, CO).

RESULTS

Before lens wear, penetrating keratoplasty eyes displayed significantly greater median values for central corneal thickness (97 μm thicker, P=0.02), IOP (3.89 mm Hg higher, P=0.01), and biomechanical parameter A2 length (0.48 mm longer, P=0.003) compared with keratoconic eyes. No significant changes in corneal biomechanical parameters or IOP were observed after scleral lens wear in either group (all P>0.05).

CONCLUSION

Although nonfenestrated scleral contact lenses can induce a subatmospheric pressure after lens settling and compress tissue surrounding the limbus, no significant changes were detected in the corneal biomechanical parameters studied using CORVIS ST after scleral lens wear in eyes with penetrating keratoplasty and keratoconus.

Scleral Lens Thickness and Corneal Edema Under Open Eye Conditions

PURPOSE

To examine the relationship between lens thickness and central corneal edema during short-term open-eye scleral lens wear, and to compare these empirical edema measurements with theoretical modelling.

METHODS

Nine participants (mean age 30 years) with normal corneas wore scleral lenses {Dk 141×10-11 cm3 O2 [cm]/([sec] [cm2] [mm Hg])} under open-eye conditions on separate days with nominal center thicknesses of 150, 300, 600, and 1,200 μm. Epithelial, stromal, and total corneal edema were measured using high-resolution optical coherence tomography immediately after lens application and after 90 min of wear, before lens removal.

RESULTS

Central corneal edema was primarily stromal in nature and increased with increasing central lens thickness. The mean±standard error total corneal edema was 1.14±0.22%, 1.36±0.26%, 1.74±0.30%, and 2.13±0.24% for the 150, 300, 600, and 1,200 μm lenses, respectively. A significant difference in stromal and total corneal edema was observed between the 1,200 and 150 μm thickness lenses only (both P<0.05). Theoretical modelling overestimated the magnitude of central corneal edema and the influence of central lens thickness when the scleral lens Dk/t was less than 20.

CONCLUSION

Scleral lens-induced central corneal edema during short-term open-eye lens wear increases with increasing central lens thickness. Theoretical models overestimated the effect of increasing scleral lens thickness upon central corneal edema for higher lens thickness values (lens Dk/t<20) when controlling for initial central fluid reservoir thickness.

Keratoconus: An updated review

Keratoconus is a bilateral and asymmetric disease which results in progressive thinning and steeping of the cornea leading to irregular astigmatism and decreased visual acuity. Traditionally, the condition has been described as a noninflammatory disease; however, more recently it has been associated with ocular inflammation. Keratoconus normally develops in the second and third decades of life and progresses until the fourth decade. The condition affects all ethnicities and both sexes. The prevalence and incidence rates of keratoconus have been estimated to be between 0.2 and 4,790 per 100,000 persons and 1.5 and 25 cases per 100,000 persons/year, respectively, with highest rates typically occurring in 20- to 30-year-olds and Middle Eastern and Asian ethnicities. Progressive stromal thinning, rupture of the anterior limiting membrane, and subsequent ectasia of the central/paracentral cornea are the most commonly observed histopathological findings. A family history of keratoconus, eye rubbing, eczema, asthma, and allergy are risk factors for developing keratoconus. Detecting keratoconus in its earliest stages remains a challenge. Corneal topography is the primary diagnostic tool for keratoconus detection. In incipient cases, however, the use of a single parameter to diagnose keratoconus is insufficient, and in addition to corneal topography, corneal pachymetry and higher order aberration data are now commonly used. Keratoconus severity and progression may be classified based on morphological features and disease evolution, ocular signs, and index-based systems. Keratoconus treatment varies depending on disease severity and progression. Mild cases are typically treated with spectacles, moderate cases with contact lenses, while severe cases that cannot be managed with scleral contact lenses may require corneal surgery. Mild to moderate cases of progressive keratoconus may also be treated surgically, most commonly with corneal cross-linking. This article provides an updated review on the definition, epidemiology, histopathology, aetiology and pathogenesis, clinical features, detection, classification, and management and treatment strategies for keratoconus.

Scleral Lens-Induced Corneal Edema After Radial Keratotomy

ABSTRACT

This case series examines the magnitude and regional variation in scleral lens-induced corneal edema in postradial keratotomy (RK) eyes. Scheimpflug imaging was used to measure corneal thickness across the central 6 mm before and after scleral lens wear in nine post-RK eyes (median age 64 years). Variations in corneal edema were examined as a function of distance from the corneal center (six 0.5-mm annuli) and from 0° to 360°. The median central corneal edema was 2.19% (interquartile range 1.03%-3.18%; P=0.02) and increased in magnitude and variability further from the central cornea (from 1.30% in the central 0-0.5 mm to 3.12% in the 2.5-3.0 mm midperiphery) (P=0.02). Scleral lens-induced corneal edema in post-RK eyes was greater in magnitude further from the corneal center and at the approximate location of corneal incisions.

Scleral Lens Visual Rehabilitation of Sequential Bilateral Corneal Hydrops With Post-LASIK Ectasia

ABSTRACT

This case report describes a unique presentation of bilateral sequential acute corneal hydrops that manifested several years after laser in situ keratomileusis. Initial management included anterior chamber perfluoropropane gas injection and corneal suturing. Longer-term visual rehabilitation involved the use of scleral lenses which significantly reduced lower- and higher-order ocular aberrations.

CLEAR - Medical use of contact lenses

The medical use of contact lenses is a solution for many complex ocular conditions, including high refractive error, irregular astigmatism, primary and secondary corneal ectasia, disfiguring disease, and ocular surface disease. The development of highly oxygen permeable soft and rigid materials has extended the suitability of contact lenses for such applications. There is consistent evidence that bandage soft contact lenses, particularly silicone hydrogel lenses, improve epithelial healing and reduce pain in persistent epithelial defects, after trauma or surgery, and in corneal dystrophies. Drug delivery applications of contact lens hold promise for improving topical therapy. Modern scleral lens practice has achieved great success for both visual rehabilitation and therapeutic applications, including those requiring retention of a tear reservoir or protection from an adverse environment. This report offers a practical and relevant summary of the current evidence for the medical use of contact lenses for all eye care professionals including optometrists, ophthalmologists, opticians, and orthoptists. Topics covered include indications for use in both acute and chronic conditions, lens selection, patient selection, wear and care regimens, and recommended aftercare schedules. Prevention, presentation, and management of complications of medical use are reviewed.

CLEAR - Scleral lenses

Scleral lenses were the first type of contact lens, developed in the late nineteenth century to restore vision and protect the ocular surface. With the advent of rigid corneal lenses in the middle of the twentieth century and soft lenses in the 1970's, the use of scleral lenses diminished; in recent times there has been a resurgence in their use driven by advances in manufacturing and ocular imaging technology. Scleral lenses are often the only viable form of contact lens wear across a range of clinical indications and can potentially delay the need for corneal surgery. This report provides a brief historical review of scleral lenses and a detailed account of contemporary scleral lens practice including common indications and recommended terminology. Recent research on ocular surface shape is presented, in addition to a comprehensive account of modern scleral lens fitting and on-eye evaluation. A range of optical and physiological challenges associated with scleral lenses are presented, including options for the clinical management of a range of ocular conditions. Future applications which take advantage of the stability of scleral lenses are also discussed. In summary, this report presents evidence-based recommendations to optimise patient outcomes in modern scleral lens practice.