Cancer stem cell markers in prostate cancer: an immunohistochemical study of ALDH1, SOX2 and EZH2

Exosomal RNAs and EZH2: unraveling the molecular dialogue driving tumor progression

The EZH2 gene encodes an enzyme that is part of the epigenetic factor Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2). In order to control gene expression, PRC2 mainly modifies chromatin structure. In this complex process, EZH2 methylates histone proteins, which in turn suppresses further RNA transcriptions. As a result, EZH2 dysregulations can occasionally induce abnormal gene expression patterns, which can aid in the development and progression of cancer. Non-coding RNAs significantly impact the expression of EZH2 through epigenetic mechanisms. Meanwhile, normal and cancerous cells frequently release vesicles into the extracellular matrix, also known as exosomes, that occasionally carry RNA molecules from their origin cells, including messenger RNAs, microRNAs, and other non-coding RNAs. Thus exosomes are granted the ability to regulate numerous physiological functions and act as crucial messengers between cells by influencing gene expression in the recipient cell. We conducted this review to focus on EZH2's substantial biological role and the mechanisms that regulate it, driven by the desire to understand the possible impact of exosomal RNAs on EZH2 expression.

Cancer stem cells: Masters of all traits

Cancer is a heterogeneous disease, which contributes to its rapid progression and therapeutic failure. Besides interpatient tumor heterogeneity, tumors within a single patient can present with a heterogeneous mix of genetically and phenotypically distinct subclones. These unique subclones can significantly impact the traits of cancer. With the plasticity that intratumoral heterogeneity provides, cancers can easily adapt to changes in their microenvironment and therapeutic exposure. Indeed, tumor cells dynamically shift between a more differentiated, rapidly proliferating state with limited tumorigenic potential and a cancer stem cell (CSC)-like state that resembles undifferentiated cellular precursors and is associated with high tumorigenicity. In this context, CSCs are functionally located at the apex of the tumor hierarchy, contributing to the initiation, maintenance, and progression of tumors, as they also represent the subpopulation of tumor cells most resistant to conventional anti-cancer therapies. Although the CSC model is well established, it is constantly evolving and being reshaped by advancing knowledge on the roles of CSCs in different cancer types. Here, we review the current evidence of how CSCs play a pivotal role in providing the many traits of aggressive tumors while simultaneously evading immunosurveillance and anti-cancer therapy in several cancer types. We discuss the key traits and characteristics of CSCs to provide updated insights into CSC biology and highlight its implications for therapeutic development and improved treatment of aggressive cancers.

The molecular pathogenesis of SOX2 in prostate cancer

SOX2 is one of the members of the SOX transcription factor family, which is believed to be an important transcription factor that plays a role in embryonic development, maintenance of stem cells, cancer progression, and resistance to cancer treatment. There is increasing evidence suggesting that SOX2 is crucial for the initiation, progression, invasion, metastasis, and treatment resistance of prostate cancer, therefore understanding the mechanism of SOX2 in prostate cancer can provide better targets for the treatment of prostate cancer. This article reviews the structural domains, normal physiological functions, and role in prostate cancer progression of SOX2, providing potential targets for prostate cancer treatment.

Molecular Mechanisms of Dietary Compounds in Cancer Stem Cells from Solid Tumors: Insights into Colorectal, Breast, and Prostate Cancer

Cancer stem cells (CSC) are known to be the main source of tumor relapse, metastasis, or multidrug resistance and the mechanisms to counteract or eradicate them and their activity remain elusive. There are different hypotheses that claim that the origin of CSC might be in regular stem cells (SC) and, due to accumulation of mutations, these normal cells become malignant, or the source of CSC might be in any malignant cell that, under certain environmental circumstances, acquires all the qualities to become CSC. Multiple studies indicate that lifestyle and diet might represent a source of wellbeing that can prevent and ameliorate the malignant phenotype of CSC. In this review, after a brief introduction to SC and CSC, we analyze the effects of phenolic and non-phenolic dietary compounds and we highlight the molecular mechanisms that are shown to link diets to CSC activation in colon, breast, and prostate cancer. We focus the analysis on specific markers such as sphere formation, CD surface markers, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), Oct4, Nanog, Sox2, and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1) and on the major signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, Notch, Hedgehog, and Wnt/β-catenin in CSC. In conclusion, a better understanding of how bioactive compounds in our diets influence the dynamics of CSC can raise valuable awareness towards reducing cancer risk.

Screening and identification of gene expression in large cohorts of clinical tissue samples unveils the major involvement of EZH2 and SOX2 in lung cancer

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), the primary subtype of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC), accounts for 80 % to 85 % of cases. Due to suboptimal screening method, LUAD is often detected in late stage, leading to aggressive progression and poor outcomes. Therefore, early disease prognosis for the LUAD is high priority. In order to identify early detection biomarkers, we conducted a meta-analysis of mRNA expression TCGA and GTEx datasets from LUAD patients. A total of 795 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by exploring the Network-Analyst tool and utilizing combined effect size methods. DEGs refer to genes whose expression levels are significantly different (either higher or lower) compared to their normal baseline expression levels. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis highlighted the TNF signaling pathway as being prominently associated with these DEGs. Subsequently, using the MCODE and CytoHubba plugins in Cytoscape software, we filtered out the top 10 genes. Among these, SOX2 was the only gene exhibiting higher expression, while the others were downregulated. Consequently, our subsequent research focused on SOX2. Further transcription factor-gene network analysis revealed that enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is a significant partner of SOX2, potentially playing a crucial role in euchromatin-heterochromatin dynamics. Structure of SOX2 protein suggest that it is a non-druggable transcription factor, literature survey suggests the same. SOX2 is considered challenging to target directly, or "non-druggable," because of several intrinsic properties that make it difficult to design effective therapeutic agents against it. The primary function of SOX2 is to bind DNA and regulates gene expression. Unlike enzymes or receptors with defined active sites or binding pockets, transcription factors typically have relatively flat or diffuse surfaces that do not offer obvious "pockets" for small molecules to bind effectively. Hence, we drove our focus to investigate on potential drug(s) targeting EZH2. Molecular docking analyses predicted most probable inhibitors of EZH2. We employed several predictive analysis tools and identified GSK343, as a promising inhibitor of EZH2.

Nuclear receptor TLX functions to promote cancer stemness and EMT in prostate cancer via its direct transactivation of CD44 and stem cell-regulatory transcription factors

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer stem cells (PCSCs) play crucial roles in therapy-resistance and metastasis in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Certain functional link between cancer stemness and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is involved in CRPC. However, up-stream regulators controlling these two processes in PCSCs are still poorly understood. Recently, we have shown that orphan nuclear receptor TLX can promote tumour initiation and progression in CRPC by repressing androgen receptor and oncogene-induced senescence.

METHODS

PCSCs were isolated from various prostate cancer cell lines and clinical tumour tissues using multiple methods for various in vitro and in vivo oncogenic growth analyses. Direct targets of TLX involved in stemness and EMT regulation were determined by specific reporter gene assays and ligand-driven modulation of TLX activity.

RESULTS

PCSCs isolated from various sources exhibited increased expression of TLX. Functional and molecular characterisation showed that TLX could function to promote cancer stemness and EMT in prostate cancer cells via its direct transactivation of CD44, SOX2, POU5F1 and NANOG, which share certain functional crosstalk in these two cellular processes.

CONCLUSIONS

TLX could act as a key up-stream regulator in transcriptional control of stemness and EMT in PCSCs, which contribute to their tumorigenicity, castration-resistance and metastasis potentials in advanced prostate cancer.

Knocking down SOX2 overcomes the resistance of prostate cancer to castration via notch signaling

BACKGROUND

Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is a terminal type of advanced cancer resistant to androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). Due to the poor therapeutic response of CRPC, novel treatment strategies are urgently required. This study aimed to clarify the regulatory roles of the SOX2/Notch axis in CRPC.

METHODS

For the evaluation of the SOX2, Notch, and Hey1 expression in the prostate cancer (PCa) and CRPC tissues, we conducted immunohistochemistry (IHC) analyses. RT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence were performed to evaluate SOX2 and Notch expression in enzalutamide-resistant LNCaP cells (Enza-R). CCK-8, Transwell, Wound healing, and Western blotting assays were used to assess the viability, invasion, migration, cell cycle, and drug-resistant in Enza-R cells.

RESULTS

Compared to the PCa tissues, CRPC tissues exhibited significantly elevated SOX2, Notch1, and Hey1 expression. SOX2-positive patients were more likely to develop bone metastases than SOX2-negative ones. Significant activation of the signaling associated with SOX2 and Notch was detected in Enza-R cells. The suppression of SOX2 clearly inactivated the Notch signaling and inhibited malignant behaviors, including proliferation, invasion, migration, and drug resistance in Enza-R cells. Theγsecretase inhibitor, GSI-IX, abrogated the enzalutamide resistance by inhibiting Notch signaling in vitro in vitro. Also, GSI-IX alone had a significant anti-tumor effect in Enza-R cells.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that SOX2/Notch signaling was responsible for Enzalutamide resistance in CRPC. Targeting SOX2/Notch signaling might represent a new choice for the treatment and therapy of CRPC.

EZH2 Expression in Retinoblastoma: A Potential Therapeutic Target

INTRODUCTION

The enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is a member of the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) and is important in cell-cycle regulation. Increased expression of EZH2 has been reported in retinoblastoma (RB). The aim of the study was to determine EZH2 expression, compare this with clinicopathological parameters in RB, and assess its relationship with tumor cell proliferation.

METHODS

Ninety-nine retrospective cases of enucleated RB were included in the present study. Expression of EZH2 and the marker of cell proliferation, Ki67, were investigated by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Among the 99 cases of RB in this study, EZH2 was found highly expressed (positive expression rate ≥70%) in 92 cases. EZH2 was expressed in tumor cells but absent in normal retinal tissues. The expression of EZH2 was positively linked to Ki67 expression (r = 0.65, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Elevated EZH2 expression was found in most RB cases, indicating that EZH2 could be a potential therapeutic target for RB.

The Molecular Context of Oxidant Stress Response in Cancer Establishes ALDH1A1 as a Critical Target: What This Means for Acute Myeloid Leukemia

The protein family of aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) encompasses nineteen members. The ALDH1 subfamily consists of enzymes with similar activity, having the capacity to neutralize lipid peroxidation products and to generate retinoic acid; however, only ALDH1A1 emerges as a significant risk factor in acute myeloid leukemia. Not only is the gene ALDH1A1 on average significantly overexpressed in the poor prognosis group at the RNA level, but its protein product, ALDH1A1 protects acute myeloid leukemia cells from lipid peroxidation byproducts. This capacity to protect cells can be ascribed to the stability of the enzyme under conditions of oxidant stress. The capacity to protect cells is evident both in vitro, as well as in mouse xenografts of those cells, shielding cells effectively from a number of potent antineoplastic agents. However, the role of ALDH1A1 in acute myeloid leukemia has been unclear in the past due to evidence that normal cells often have higher aldehyde dehydrogenase activity than leukemic cells. This being true, ALDH1A1 RNA expression is significantly associated with poor prognosis. It is hence imperative that ALDH1A1 is methodically targeted, particularly for the acute myeloid leukemia patients of the poor prognosis risk group that overexpress ALDH1A1 RNA.

Tissue-specific cancer stem/progenitor cells: Therapeutic implications

Surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiation are the standard therapeutic modalities for treating cancer. These approaches are intended to target the more mature and rapidly dividing cancer cells. However, they spare the relatively quiescent and intrinsically resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs) subpopulation residing within the tumor tissue. Thus, a temporary eradication is achieved and the tumor bulk tends to revert supported by CSCs' resistant features. Based on their unique expression profile, the identification, isolation, and selective targeting of CSCs hold great promise for challenging treatment failure and reducing the risk of cancer recurrence. Yet, targeting CSCs is limited mainly by the irrelevance of the utilized cancer models. A new era of targeted and personalized anti-cancer therapies has been developed with cancer patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as a tool for establishing pre-clinical tumor models. Herein, we discuss the updated and presently available tissue-specific CSC markers in five highly occurring solid tumors. Additionally, we highlight the advantage and relevance of the three-dimensional PDOs culture model as a platform for modeling cancer, evaluating the efficacy of CSC-based therapeutics, and predicting drug response in cancer patients.

Effect of Disulfiram on the Reproductive Capacity of Female Mice

In the process of assisted reproduction, the high-oxygen in vitro environment can easily cause oxidative damage to oocytes. Disulfiram (DSF) can play an anti-oxidant or pro-oxidant role in different cells, and the effect of DSF on oocytes remains unclear. Moreover, it remains unclear whether the use of DSF in the early stages of pregnancy has a negative impact on the fetus. In this study, we found that DSF increased serum FSH levels and increased the ovulation rate in mice. Moreover, DSF enhanced the antioxidant capacity of oocytes and contributed to the success rate of in vitro fertilization. Moreover, the use of DSF in early pregnancy in mice increased the uterine horn volume and the degree of vascularization, which contributed to a successful pregnancy. In addition, it was found that DSF regulated the mRNA expression of angiogenesis-related genes (VEGF), follicular development-related genes (C1QTNF3, mTOR and PI3K), ovulation-related genes (MAPK1, MAPK3 and p38 MAPK) and antioxidant-related genes (GPX4 and CAT). These results indicate that DSF is helpful for increasing the antioxidant capacity of oocytes and the ovulation rate. In early pregnancy in mice, DSF promotes pregnancy by increasing the degree and volume of uterine vascularization.

Cancer Stemness/Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Axis Influences Metastasis and Castration Resistance in Prostate Cancer: Potential Therapeutic Target

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a leading cause of cancer death in men, worldwide. Mortality is highly related to metastasis and hormone resistance, but the molecular underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. We have studied the presence and role of cancer stem cells (CSCs) and the Epithelial-Mesenchymal transition (EMT) in PCa, using both in vitro and in vivo models, thereby providing evidence that the stemness-mesenchymal axis seems to be a critical process related to relapse, metastasis and resistance. These are complex and related processes that involve a cooperative action of different cancer cell subpopulations, in which CSCs and mesenchymal cancer cells (MCCs) would be responsible for invading, colonizing pre-metastatic niches, initiating metastasis and an evading treatments response. Manipulating the stemness-EMT axis genes on the androgen receptor (AR) may shed some light on the effect of this axis on metastasis and castration resistance in PCa. It is suggested that the EMT gene SNAI2/Slug up regulates the stemness gene Sox2, and vice versa, inducing AR expression, promoting metastasis and castration resistance. This approach will provide new sight about the role of the stemness-mesenchymal axis in the metastasis and resistance mechanisms in PCa and their potential control, contributing to develop new therapeutic strategies for patients with metastatic and castration-resistant PCa.

Histone lysine methylation patterns in prostate cancer microenvironment infiltration: Integrated bioinformatic analysis and histological validation

Background

Epigenetic reprogramming through dysregulated histone lysine methylation (HLM) plays a crucial role in prostate cancer (PCa) progression. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate HLM modification patterns in PCa microenvironment infiltration.

Materials and methods

Ninety-one HLM regulators in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset were analyzed using bioinformatics. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and survival analyses were performed using TCGA-PRAD clinicopathologic and follow-up information. Consensus clustering analysis divided patients into subgroups. Gene ontology (GO) function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed on the DEGs. Tumor mutation burden (TMB) and tumor microenvironment (TME) cell infiltration were evaluated in different HLM clusters. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis assessed HLM regulators in clinical PCa tissues.

Results

The tumor vs. normal (TN), Gleason score (GS) > 7 vs. GS < 7, pathological T stage (pT) = 2 vs. pT = 3, and TP53 mutation vs. wild-type comparisons using TCGA-PRAD dataset revealed 3 intersecting HLM regulators (EZH2, NSD2, and KMT5C) that were consistently upregulated in advanced PCa (GS > 7, pT3, HR > 1, and TP53 mutation) (P < 0.05) and verified in clinical PCa tissues. Consensus clustering analysis revealed three distinct HLM modification patterns (HLMclusters). However, no significant differences in recurrence-free survival (RFS) rates were found among the groups (P > 0.05). We screened 189 HLM phenotype-related genes that overlapped in the pairwise comparisons of HLMclusters and P < 0.01 in the Cox regression analysis. Three distinct subgroups (geneClusters) were revealed based on the 189 genes, in which cluster A involved the most advanced PCa (PSA > 10, T3-4, GS8-10, and biochemical recurrence) and the poorest RFS. The HLM score (HLMscore) was calculated by principal component analysis (PCA) of HLM phenotype-related genes that have positive predictive value for RFS (P < 0.001) and immune therapy responses (in the CTLA4-positive and -negative responses accompanied by a PD1-negative response).

Conclusion

We comprehensively evaluated HLM regulators in the PCa microenvironment using TCGA-PRAD, revealing a nonnegligible role of HLM patterns in PCa complexity and heterogeneity. Elucidating the effects of HLM regulators in PCa may enhance prognostics, aggressiveness assessments, and immunotherapy strategies.

Role of prostate cancer stem-like cells in the development of antiandrogen resistance

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is the standard of care treatment for advance stage prostate cancer. Treatment with ADT develops resistance in multiple ways leading to the development of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Present research establishes that prostate cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) play a central role in the development of treatment resistance followed by disease progression. Prostate CSCs are capable of self-renewal, differentiation, and regenerating tumor heterogeneity. The stemness properties in prostate CSCs arise due to various factors such as androgen receptor mutation and variants, epigenetic and genetic modifications leading to alteration in the tumor microenvironment, changes in ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, and adaptations in molecular signaling pathways. ADT reprograms prostate tumor cellular machinery leading to the expression of various stem cell markers such as Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 1 Family Member A1 (ALDH1A1), Prominin 1 (PROM1/CD133), Indian blood group (CD44), SRY-Box Transcription Factor 2 (Sox2), POU Class 5 Homeobox 1(POU5F1/Oct4), Nanog and ABC transporters. These markers indicate enhanced self-renewal and stemness stimulating CRPC evolution, metastatic colonization, and resistance to antiandrogens. In this review, we discuss the role of ADT in prostate CSCs differentiation and acquisition of CRPC, their isolation, identification and characterization, as well as the factors and pathways contributing to CSCs expansion and therapeutic opportunities.

SOX2 mediates metabolic reprogramming of prostate cancer cells

New strategies are needed to predict and overcome metastatic progression and therapy resistance in prostate cancer. One potential clinical target is the stem cell transcription factor SOX2, which has a critical role in prostate development and cancer. We thus investigated the impact of SOX2 expression on patient outcomes and its function within prostate cancer cells. Analyses of SOX2 expression among a case-control cohort of 1028 annotated tumor specimens demonstrated that SOX2 expression confers a more rapid time to metastasis and decreased patient survival after biochemical recurrence. SOX2 ChIP-Seq analyses revealed SOX2-binding sites within prostate cancer cells which differ significantly from canonical embryonic SOX2 gene targets, and prostate-specific SOX2 gene targets are associated with multiple oncogenic pathways. Interestingly, phenotypic and gene expression analyses after CRISPR-mediated deletion of SOX2 in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells, as well as ectopic SOX2 expression in androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells, demonstrated that SOX2 promotes changes in multiple metabolic pathways and metabolites. SOX2 expression in prostate cancer cell lines confers increased glycolysis and glycolytic capacity, as well as increased basal and maximal oxidative respiration and increased spare respiratory capacity. Further, SOX2 expression was associated with increased quantities of mitochondria, and metabolomic analyses revealed SOX2-associated changes in the metabolism of purines, pyrimidines, amino acids and sugars, and the pentose phosphate pathway. Analyses of SOX2 gene targets with central functions metabolism (CERK, ECHS1, HS6SDT1, LPCAT4, PFKP, SLC16A3, SLC46A1, and TST) document significant expression correlation with SOX2 among RNA-Seq datasets derived from patient tumors and metastases. These data support a key role for SOX2 in metabolic reprogramming of prostate cancer cells and reveal new mechanisms to understand how SOX2 enables metastatic progression, lineage plasticity, and therapy resistance. Further, our data suggest clinical opportunities to exploit SOX2 as a biomarker for staging and imaging, as well as a potential pharmacologic target.

ALDH1 expression predicts progression of premalignant lesions to cancer in Type I endometrial carcinomas

In type 1 endometrial cancer, unopposed estrogen stimulation is thought to lead to endometrial hyperplasia which precedes malignant progression. Recent data from our group and others suggest that ALDH activity mediates stemness in endometrial cancer, but while aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1) has been suggested as a putative cancer stem cell marker in several cancer types, its clinical and prognostic value in endometrial cancer remains debated. The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical value of ALDH1 expression in endometrial hyperplasia and to determine its ability to predict progression to endometrial cancer. Interrogation of the TCGA database revealed upregulation of several isoforms in endometrial cancer, of which the ALDH1 isoforms collectively constituted the largest group. To translate its expression, a tissue microarray was previously constructed which contained a wide sampling of benign and malignant endometrial samples. The array contained a metachronous cohort of samples from individuals who either developed or did not develop endometrial cancer. Immunohistochemical staining was used to determine the intensity and frequency of ALDH1 expression. While benign proliferative and secretory endometrium showed very low levels of ALDH1, slightly higher expression was observed within the stratum basalis. In disease progression, cytoplasmic ALDH1 expression showed a step-wise increase between endometrial hyperplasia, atypical hyperplasia, and endometrial cancer. ALDH1 was also shown to be an early predictor of EC development, suggesting that it can serve as an independent prognostic indicator of patients with endometrial hyperplasia with or without atypia who would progress to cancer (p = 0.012).

Targeted Delivery of Therapeutics to Urological Cancer Stem Cells

Urological cancer refers to cancer in organs of the urinary system and the male reproductive system. It mainly includes prostate cancer, bladder cancer, renal cancer, etc., seriously threatening patients' survival. Although there are many advances in the treatment of urological cancer, approved targeted therapies often result in tumor recurrence and therapy failure. An increasing amount of evidence indicated that cancer stem cells (CSCs) with tumor-initiating ability were the source of treatment failure in urological cancer. The development of CSCstargeted strategy can provide a possibility for the complete elimination of urological cancer. This review is based on a search of PubMed, Google scholar and NIH database (http://ClinicalTrials.gov/) for English language articles containing the terms: "biomarkers", "cancer stem cells", "targeting/targeted therapy", "prostate cancer", bladder cancer" and "kidney cancer". We summarized the biomarkers and stem cell features of the prostate, bladder and renal CSCs, outlined the targeted strategies for urological CSCs from signaling pathways, cytokines, angiogenesis, surface markers, elimination therapy, differentiation therapy, immunotherapy, microRNA, nanomedicine, etc., and highlighted the prospects and future challenges in this research field.

Role of nitric oxide in the response to photooxidative stress in prostate cancer cells

A continuous state of oxidative stress during inflammation contributes to the development of 25% of human cancers. Epithelial and inflammatory cells release reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) that can damage DNA. ROS/RNS have biological implications in both chemoresistance and tumor recurrence. As several clinically employed anticancer drugs can generate ROS/RNS, we have addressed herein how inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitric oxide (iNOS/^•NO) affect the molecular pathways implicated in the tumor response to oxidative stress. To mimic the oxidative stress associated with chemotherapy, we used a photosensitizer (pheophorbide a) that can generate ROS/RNS in a controlled manner. We investigated how iNOS/^•NO modulates the tumor response to oxidative stress by involving the NF-κB and Nrf2 molecular pathways. We found that low levels of iNOS induce the development of a more aggressive tumor population, leading to survival, recurrence and resistance. By contrast, high levels of iNOS/^•NO sensitize tumor cells to oxidative treatment, causing cell growth arrest. Our analysis showed that NF-κB and Nrf2, which are activated in response to oxidative stress, communicate with each other through RKIP. For this critical role, RKIP could be an interesting target for anticancer drugs. Our study provides insight into the complex signaling response of cancer cells to oxidative treatments as well as new possibilities for the rational design of new therapeutic strategies.

Advancements in Cancer Stem Cell Isolation and Characterization

Occurrence of stem cells (CSCs) in cancer is well established in last two decades. These rare cells share several properties including presence of common surface markers, stem cell markers, chemo- and radio- resistance and are highly metastatic in nature; thus, considered as valuable prognostic and therapeutic targets in cancer. However, the studies related to CSCs pave number of issues due to rare cell population and difficulties in their isolation ascribed to common stem cell marker. Various techniques including flow cytometry, laser micro-dissection, fluorescent nanodiamonds and microfluidics are used for the isolation of these rare cells. In this review, we have included the advance strategies adopted for the isolation of CSCs using above mentioned techniques. Furthermore, CSCs are primarily found in the core of the solid tumors and their microenvironment plays an important role in maintenance, self-renewal, division and tumor development. Therefore, in vivo tracking and model development become obligatory for functional studies of CSCs. Fluorescence and bioluminescence tagging has been widely used for transplantation assay and lineage tracking experiments to improve our understanding towards CSCs behaviour in their niche. Techniques such as Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and Positron emission tomography (PET) have proved useful for tracking of endogenous CSCs which could be helpful in their identification in clinical settings.

Functional characterization of SOX2 as an anticancer target

SOX2 is a well-characterized pluripotent factor that is essential for stem cell self-renewal, reprogramming, and homeostasis. The cellular levels of SOX2 are precisely regulated by a complicated network at the levels of transcription, post-transcription, and post-translation. In many types of human cancer, SOX2 is dysregulated due to gene amplification and protein overexpression. SOX2 overexpression is associated with poor survival of cancer patients. Mechanistically, SOX2 promotes proliferation, survival, invasion/metastasis, cancer stemness, and drug resistance. SOX2 is, therefore, an attractive anticancer target. However, little progress has been made in the efforts to discover SOX2 inhibitors, largely due to undruggable nature of SOX2 as a transcription factor. In this review, we first briefly introduced SOX2 as a transcription factor, its domain structure, normal physiological functions, and its involvement in human cancers. We next discussed its role in embryonic development and stem cell-renewal. We then mainly focused on three aspects of SOX2: (a) the regulatory mechanisms of SOX2, including how SOX2 level is regulated, and how SOX2 cross-talks with multiple signaling pathways to control growth and survival; (b) the role of SOX2 in tumorigenesis and drug resistance; and (c) current drug discovery efforts on targeting SOX2, and the future perspectives to discover specific SOX2 inhibitors for effective cancer therapy.

Androgen Deprivation Induces Reprogramming of Prostate Cancer Cells to Stem-Like Cells

In the past few years, cell plasticity has emerged as a mode of targeted therapy evasion in prostate adenocarcinoma. When exposed to anticancer therapies, tumor cells may switch into a different histological subtype, such as the neuroendocrine phenotype which is associated with treatment failure and a poor prognosis. In this study, we demonstrated that long-term androgen signal depletion of prostate LNCaP cells induced a neuroendocrine phenotype followed by re-differentiation towards a “stem-like” state. LNCaP cells incubated for 30 days in charcoal-stripped medium or with the androgen receptor antagonist 2-hydroxyflutamide developed neuroendocrine morphology and increased the expression of the neuroendocrine markers βIII-tubulin and neuron specific enolase (NSE). When cells were incubated for 90 days in androgen-depleted medium, they grew as floating spheres and had enhanced expression of the stem cell markers CD133, ALDH1A1, and the transporter ABCB1A. Additionally, the pluripotent transcription factors Nanog and Oct4 and the angiogenic factor VEGF were up-regulated while the expression of E-cadherin was inhibited. Cell viability revealed that those cells were resistant to docetaxel and 2-hidroxyflutamide. Mechanistically, androgen depletion induced the decrease in AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) expression and activation and stabilization of the hypoxia-inducible factor HIF-1α. Overexpression of AMPK in the stem-like cells decreased the expression of stem markers as well as that of HIF-1α and VEGF while it restored the levels of E-cadherin and PGC-1α. Most importantly, docetaxel sensitivity was restored in stem-like AMPK-transfected cells. Our model provides a new regulatory mechanism of prostate cancer plasticity through AMPK that is worth exploring.

CMIP promotes Herceptin resistance of HER2 positive gastric cancer cells

Gastric cancer remains one of the most malignant human cancers with poor prognosis. Herceptin is a well-received antibody drug for HER2 positive gastric cancer. Primary Herceptin resistance and acquired Herceptin resistance retarded the use of Herceptin for gastric cancer. We herein reported CMIP (C-Maf-inducing protein) was overexpressed in Herceptin-resistant gastric cancer cells MKN45-HR and NCI-N87-HR; CMIP promoted Herceptin resistance of HER2 positive gastric cancer cells. SOX2 was examined to be positively regulated by CMIP and also promoted Herceptin resistance of HER2 positive gastric cancer cells. SOX2 might mediate the Herceptin resistance promoting role of CMIP in gastric cancer cells. Elevated expression of CMIP was associated with poor clinicopathological features including tumor size, lymph node metastasis and clinical stage in HER2 positive gastric cancer patients. Inhibitors of CMIP could be used as potential adjuvant therapeutic drugs for HER2 positive gastric cancer.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Prostate Cancer Development: Therapeutic Implications

Prostate cancer is the most frequent nonskin cancer and second most common cause of cancer-related deaths in man. Prostate cancer is a clinically heterogeneous disease with many patients exhibiting an aggressive disease with progression, metastasis, and other patients showing an indolent disease with low tendency to progression. Three stages of development of human prostate tumors have been identified: intraepithelial neoplasia, adenocarcinoma androgen-dependent, and adenocarcinoma androgen-independent or castration-resistant. Advances in molecular technologies have provided a very rapid progress in our understanding of the genomic events responsible for the initial development and progression of prostate cancer. These studies have shown that prostate cancer genome displays a relatively low mutation rate compared with other cancers and few chromosomal loss or gains. The ensemble of these molecular studies has led to suggest the existence of two main molecular groups of prostate cancers: one characterized by the presence of ERG rearrangements (~50% of prostate cancers harbor recurrent gene fusions involving ETS transcription factors, fusing the 5' untranslated region of the androgen-regulated gene TMPRSS2 to nearly the coding sequence of the ETS family transcription factor ERG) and features of chemoplexy (complex gene rearrangements developing from a coordinated and simultaneous molecular event), and a second one characterized by the absence of ERG rearrangements and by the frequent mutations in the E3 ubiquitin ligase adapter SPOP and/or deletion of CDH1, a chromatin remodeling factor, and interchromosomal rearrangements and SPOP mutations are early events during prostate cancer development. During disease progression, genomic and epigenomic abnormalities accrued and converged on prostate cancer pathways, leading to a highly heterogeneous transcriptomic landscape, characterized by a hyperactive androgen receptor signaling axis.

Cancer stem cells in breast and prostate: Fact or fiction?

Since the introduction of the cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis, accumulating evidence shows that most cancers present stem-like niches. However, therapies aimed at targeting this niche have not been as successful as expected. New evidence regarding CSCs hierarchy, similarities with normal tissue stem cells and cell plasticity might be key in understanding their role in cancer biology and how to efficiently eliminate them. In this Chapter, we discuss what is known in breast and prostate CSCs from their initial discoveries to the current therapeutic efforts in the field. Future challenges towards better CSC identification and isolation strategies will be key to shed light into how CSCs could accurately be targeted in combination to traditional therapies to ultimately prolong patient survival.

Targeting EZH2 for glioma therapy with a novel nanoparticle-siRNA complex

Background

For the past few years, gene-therapy has recently shown considerable clinical benefit in cancer therapy, and the applications of gene therapies in cancer treatments continue to increase perennially. EZH2, an ideal candidate for tumor gene therapy, plays an important role in the tumorigenesis.

Methods

In this study, we developed a novel gene delivery system with a self-assembly method by Methoxy polyethylene glycol-polycaprolactone (MPEG-PCL) and DOTAP(DMC). And EZH2si-DMC was used to research anti-glioma both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

DMC with zeta-potential value of 36.7 mV and size of 35.6 nm showed good performance in the delivery siRNA to glioma cell in vitro with high 98% transfection efficiency. EZH2si-DMC showed good anti-glioma effect in vitro through inducing cell apoptosis and inhibiting cell growth. What’s more, treatment of tumor-bearing mice with DMC-EZH2si complex had significantly inhibited tumor growth at the subcutaneous model in vivo by inhibiting EZH2 protein expression, promoting apoptosis and reducing proliferation.

Conclusion

The EZH2 siRNA and DMC complex may be used to treat the glioma in clinical as a new drug.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase in regulatory T-cell development, immunity and cancer

The role of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) in carcinogenesis and resistance to cancer therapies is well known. Mounting evidence also suggests a potentially important role for ALDH in the induction and function of regulatory T (Treg) cells. Treg cells are important cells of the immune system involved in promoting immune tolerance and preventing aberrant immune responses to beneficial or non-harmful antigens. However, Treg cells also impair tumor immunity, leading to the progression of various carcinomas. ALDH expression and the subsequent production of retinoic acid by numerous cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, eosinophils and epithelial cells, seems important in Treg induction and function in multiple organ systems. This is particularly evident in the gastrointestinal tract, pulmonary tract and skin, which are exposed to a myriad of environmental antigens and represent interfaces between the human body and the outside world. Expression of ALDH in Treg cells themselves may also be involved in the proliferation of these cells and resistance to certain cytotoxic therapies. Hence, inhibition of ALDH expression may be useful to treat cancer. Besides the direct effect of ALDH inhibition on carcinogenesis and resistance to cancer therapies, inhibition of ALDH could potentially augment the immune response to tumor antigens by inhibiting Treg induction, function and ability to promote immune tolerance to tumor cells in multiple cancer types.

Unraveling the journey of cancer stem cells from origin to metastasis

Cancer biology research over recent decades has given ample evidence for the existence of self-renewing and drug-resistant populations within heterogeneous tumors, widely recognized as cancer stem cells (CSCs). However, a lack of clear understanding about the origin, existence, maintenance, and metastatic roles of CSCs limit efforts towards the development of CSC-targeted therapy. In this review, we describe novel avenues of current CSC biology. In addition to cell fusion and horizontal gene transfer, CSCs are originated by mutations in somatic or differentiated cancer cells, resulting in de-differentiation and reprogramming. Recent studies also provided evidence for the existence of distinct or heterogeneous CSC populations within a single heterogeneous tumor. Our analysis of the literature also opens the doors for a novel hypothesis that CSC populations with specific phenotypes, metabolic profiles, and clonogenic potential metastasize to specific organs.

Stabilization of miRNAs in esophageal cancer contributes to radioresistance and limits efficacy of therapy

The five-year survival rate of esophageal cancer patients is less than 20%. This may be due to increased resistance (acquired or intrinsic) of tumor cells to chemo/radiotherapies, often caused by aberrant cell cycle, deregulated apoptosis, increases in growth factor signaling pathways, and/or changes in the proteome network. In addition, deregulation in non-coding RNA-mediated signaling pathways may contribute to resistance to therapies. At the molecular level, these resistance factors have now been linked to various microRNA (miRNAs), which have recently been shown to control cell development, differentiation and neoplasia. The increased stability and dysregulated expression of miRNAs have been associated with increased resistance to various therapies in several cancers, including esophageal cancer. Therefore, miRNAs represent the next generation of molecules with tremendous potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. However, detailed studies on miRNA-based therapeutic interventions are still in their infancy. Hence, in this review, we have summarized the current status of microRNAs in dictating the resistance/sensitivity of tumor cells to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In addition, we have discussed various strategies to increase radiosensitivity, including targeted therapy, and the use of miRNAs as radiosensitive/radioresistance biomarkers for esophageal cancer in the clinical setting.

Epigenetic Contribution of High-Mobility Group A Proteins to Stem Cell Properties

High-mobility group A (HMGA) proteins have been examined to understand their participation as structural epigenetic chromatin factors that confer stem-like properties to embryonic stem cells (ESCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and cancer stem cells (CSCs). The function of HMGA was evaluated in conjunction with that of other epigenetic factors such as histones and microRNAs (miRs), taking into consideration the posttranscriptional modifications (PTMs) of histones (acetylation and methylation) and DNA methylation. HMGA proteins were coordinated or associated with histone and DNA modification and the expression of the factors related to pluripotency. CSCs showed remarkable differences compared with ESCs and iPSCs.

Role of EZH2 in cancer stem cells: from biological insight to a therapeutic target

Epigenetic modifications in cancer stem cells largely result in phenotypic and functional heterogeneity in many solid tumors. Increasing evidence indicates that enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), the catalytic subunit of Polycomb repressor complex 2, is highly expressed in cancer stem cells of numerous malignant tumors and has a critical function in cancer stem cell expansion and maintenance. Here, we review up-to-date information regarding EZH2 expression patterns, functions, and molecular mechanisms in cancer stem cells in various malignant tumors and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting EZH2 in tumors.

High immunoexpression of Ki67, EZH2, and SMYD3 in diagnostic prostate biopsies independently predicts outcome in patients with prostate cancer

INTRODUCTION

Overtreatment is a major concern in patients with prostate cancer (PCa). Prognostic biomarkers discriminating indolent from aggressive disease in prostate biopsy are urgently needed. We aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of Ki67, EZH2, LSD1, and SMYD3 immunoexpression in diagnostic biopsies from a cohort of PCa patients with long term follow-up.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A series of 189 consecutive prostate biopsies diagnosed with PCa (1997-2001) in a cancer center was included in the study, with follow-up last updated in November 2016. Biopsies were reviewed and graded according to 2016 WHO criteria. Immunohistochemistry was performed in the most representative block. Nuclear staining was assessed using digital image analysis. Study outcomes included disease-specific, disease-free, and progression-free survival. Statistical analysis was tabulated using SPSS version 22.0. Survival curves and hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated using Kaplan-Meyer and Cox-regression models, respectively. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05.

RESULTS

The proportion of patients who completed the study was 177/189 (94%). In univariable analysis, high Ki67, EZH2, and SMYD3 immunoexpression associated with significantly worse disease-specific survival (HR = 1.86, 95% CI: 1.05-3.29; HR = 1.87, 95% CI: 1.10-3.27; HR = 2.68, 95% CI: 1.02-7.92). In multivariable analysis, the 3 biomarkers displayed significantly worse DSS adjusted for CAPRA score (HR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.01-3.16; HR = 1.93, 95% CI: 1.12-3.32; HR = 2.71, 95% CI: 1.04-7.10). Among patients with low/intermediate risk CAPRA score, high Ki67 immunoexpression identified those more prone to experience disease recurrence (HR = 9.20, 95% CI: 1.27-66.44) and progression (HR = 2.97, 95% CI: 1.05-8.43).

CONCLUSIONS

High Ki67, EZH2, and SMYD3 immunoexpression, adjusted for standard clinicopathological parameters, independently predicts outcome in patients with PCa, at diagnosis. This might assist in discriminating indolent from aggressive PCa, improving treatment selection.

MicroRNA-17 is downregulated in esophageal adenocarcinoma cancer stem-like cells and promotes a radioresistant phenotype

Resistance to neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (CRT) remains a critical barrier to the effective treatment of esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) are a distinct subpopulation of cells implicated in the resistance of tumors to anti-cancer therapy. However, their role in the resistance of EAC to CRT is largely unknown. In this study, using a novel in vitro isogenic model of radioresistant EAC, we demonstrate that radioresistant EAC cells have enhanced tumorigenicity in vivo, increased expression of CSC-associated markers and enhanced holoclone forming ability. Further investigation identified a subpopulation of cells that are characterised by high aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity, enhanced radioresistance and decreased expression of miR-17-5p. In vitro, miR-17-5p was demonstrated to significantly sensitise radioresistant cells to X-ray radiation and promoted the repression of genes with miR-17-5p binding sites, such as C6orf120. In vivo, miR-17-5p was significantly decreased, whilst C6orf120 was significantly increased, in pre-treatment EAC tumour samples from patients who demonstrated a poor response to neoadjuvant CRT. This study sheds novel insights into the role of CSCs in the resistance of EAC to CRT and highlights miR-17-5p as a potential biomarker of CRT sensitivity and novel therapeutic target in treatment resistant EAC.

Prostate Cancer Stem Cell Markers Drive Progression, Therapeutic Resistance, and Bone Metastasis

Metastatic or recurrent tumors are the primary cause of cancer-related death. For prostate cancer, patients diagnosed with local disease have a 99% 5-year survival rate; however, this 5-year survival rate drops to 28% in patients with metastatic disease. This dramatic decline in survival has driven interest in discovering new markers able to identify tumors likely to recur and in developing new methods to prevent metastases from occurring. Biomarker discovery for aggressive tumor cells includes attempts to identify cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSCs are defined as tumor cells capable of self-renewal and regenerating the entire tumor heterogeneity. Thus, it is hypothesized that CSCs may drive primary tumor aggressiveness, metastatic colonization, and therapeutic relapse. The ability to identify these cells in the primary tumor or circulation would provide prognostic information capable of driving prostate cancer treatment decisions. Further, the ability to target these CSCs could prevent tumor metastasis and relapse after therapy allowing for prostate cancer to finally be cured. Here, we will review potential CSC markers and highlight evidence that describes how cells expressing each marker may drive prostate cancer progression, metastatic colonization and growth, tumor recurrence, and resistance to treatment.

Epithelial–mesenchymal transition and gastric cancer stem cell

Gastric cancer remains a big health problem in China. Gastric cancer cells contain a small subpopulation of cells that exhibit capabilities of differentiation and tumorigenicity. A putative explanation for ineffective therapy is the presence of cancer stem-like cells. Side population cells, which have cancer stem-like cells’ property, are characterized by the high efflux ability of Hoechst 33342 dye. Side population cells have been isolated from gastric cancer cell lines in previous studies. The epithelial–mesenchymal transition is very important in the invasion and metastasis of epithelial-derived cancers. More and more studies showed that gastric cancer stem-like cells possess high invasive ability and epithelial–mesenchymal transition property. A brief overview of the recent advancements in gastric cancer stem-like cells and epithelial–mesenchymal transition will be helpful for providing novel insight into gastric cancer treatment.

Secreted heat shock protein 90 promotes prostate cancer stem cell heterogeneity

Heat-shock protein 90 (Hsp90), a highly conserved molecular chaperone, is frequently upregulated in tumors, and remains an attractive anti-cancer target. Hsp90 is also found extracellularly, particularly in tumor models. Although extracellular Hsp90 (eHsp90) action is not well defined, eHsp90 targeting attenuates tumor invasion and metastasis, supporting its unique role in tumor progression. We herein investigated the potential role of eHsp90 as a modulator of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) in prostate cancer (PCa). We report a novel function for eHsp90 as a facilitator of PCa stemness, determined by its ability to upregulate stem-like markers, promote self-renewal, and enhance prostasphere growth. Moreover, eHsp90 increased the side population typically correlated with the drug-resistant phenotype. Intriguingly, tumor cells with elevated surface eHsp90 exhibited a marked increase in stem-like markers coincident with increased expression of the epithelial to mesenchymal (EMT) effector Snail, indicating that surface eHsp90 may enrich for a unique CSC population. Our analysis of distinct effectors modulating the eHsp90-dependent CSC phenotyperevealed that eHsp90 is a likely facilitator of stem cell heterogeneity. Taken together, our findings provide unique functional insights into eHsp90 as a modulator of PCa plasticity, and provide a framework towards understanding its role as a driver of tumor progression.