Putting it all together: recommendations for improving pain management in plastic surgical procedures

Efficacy of ultrasound-guided suprazygomatic maxillary nerve block on emergence agitation and postoperative analgesia after septorhinoplasty: A prospective randomized trial

Background and Aims

Emergence agitation (EA) is frequently encountered following nasal surgeries, and postoperative pain is a significant contributing element. We aimed to assess the role of suprazygomatic maxillary nerve (MN) block (SMB) guided by ultrasound (US) in lowering EA incidence and enhancing analgesia quality in septorhinoplasty cases.

Material and Methods

Sixty cases aged 18-60 years, of both genders, categorized by the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I-II and listed for septorhinoplasty, were randomized to receive general anesthesia (GA) with either no block (the control group) or combined with bilateral US-guided SMB (the SMB group). The incidence of EA, postoperative pain scores, total rescue 24-hour analgesic consumption, and incidence of adverse events were all noted.

Results

EA incidence was significantly reduced in the SMB group than in the control group (five patients (16.7%) vs 14 patients (46.6%), respectively; P = 0.026). Pain scores at 30 minutes and 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours postoperative were significantly decreased in the SMB group (P = 0.024, 0.000, 0.000, 0.009, and 0.038, respectively), with significantly less morphine consumption at 24 hours postoperative in the SMB group compared with the control group (P = 0.000). No serious adverse events were noted.

Conclusions

Preemptive application of US-guided SMB was effective in lowering EA incidence. Furthermore, it enhanced the analgesic quality and reduced the requirement for rescue analgesics in patients undergoing septorhinoplasty.

Paravertebral and erector spinae plane blocks decrease length of stay compared with local infiltration analgesia in autologous breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Autologous breast reconstruction is associated with significant pain impeding early recovery. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of replacing surgeon-administered local infiltration with preoperative paravertebral (PVB) and erector spinae plane (ESP) blocks for latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap reconstruction.

METHODS

Patients who underwent mastectomy with latissimus flap reconstruction from 2018 to 2022 were included in three groups: local infiltration, PVB, and ESP blocks. Block effect on postoperative length of stay (LOS) and the association between block status and pain, opioid consumption, time to first analgesic, and postoperative antiemetic administration were assessed.

RESULTS

122 patients met the inclusion criteria for this retrospective cohort study: no block (n=72), PVB (n=26), and ESP (n=24). On adjusted analysis, those who received a PVB block had a 20-hour shorter postoperative stay (95% CI 11 to 30; p<0.001); those who received ESP had a 24-hour (95% CI 15 to 34; p<0.001) shorter postoperative stay compared with the no block group, respectively. Using either block was associated with a reduction in intraoperative opioids (23 morphine milligram equivalents (MME)), 95% CI 14 to 31, p<0.001; ESP versus no block: 23 MME, 95% CI 14 to 32, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Replacing surgical infiltration with PVB and ESP blocks for autologous breast reconstruction reduces LOS. The comparable reduction in LOS suggests that ESP may be a viable alternative to PVB in patients undergoing latissimus flap breast reconstruction following mastectomy. Further research should investigate whether ESP or PVB have better patient outcomes in complex breast reconstruction.

Effect of Infraorbital and/or Infratrochlear Nerve Blocks on Postoperative Care in Patients with Septorhinoplasty: A Meta-Analysis

Background and Objectives: Through a comprehensive meta-analysis of the pertinent literature, this study evaluated the utility and efficacy of perioperative infraorbital and/or infratrochlear nerve blocks in reducing postoperative pain and related morbidities in patients undergoing septorhinoplasty. Materials and Methods: We reviewed studies retrieved from the PubMed, SCOPUS, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases up to August 2023. The analysis included a selection of seven articles that compared a treatment group receiving perioperative infraorbital and/or infratrochlear nerve blocks with a control group that either received a placebo or no treatment. The evaluated outcomes covered parameters such as postoperative pain, the amount and frequency of analgesic medication administration, the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, as well as the manifestation of emergence agitation. Results: The treatment group displayed a significant reduction in postoperative pain (mean difference = -1.7236 [-2.6825; -0.7646], I2 = 98.8%), as well as a significant decrease in both the amount (standardized mean difference = -2.4629 [-3.8042; -1.1216], I2 = 93.0%) and frequency (odds ratio = 0.3584 [0.1383; 0.9287], I2 = 59.7%) of analgesic medication use compared to the control. The incidence of emergence agitation (odds ratio = 0.2040 [0.0907; 0.4590], I2 = 0.0%) was notably lower in the treatment group. The incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (odds ratio = 0.5393 [0.1309; 2.2218], I2 = 60.4%) showed a trend towards reduction, although it was not statistically significant. While no adverse effects reaching statistical significance were reported in the analyzed studies, hematoma (proportional rate = 0.2133 [0.0905; 0.4250], I2 = 76.9%) and edema (proportional rate = 0.1935 [0.1048; 0.3296], I2 = 57.2%) after blocks appeared at rates of approximately 20%. Conclusions: Infraorbital and/or infratrochlear nerve blocks for septorhinoplasty effectively reduce postoperative pain and emergence agitation without notable adverse outcomes.

Decreased Length of Postoperative Drain Use, Parenteral Opioids, Length of Stay, and Complication Rates in Patients Receiving Meshed versus Unmeshed Acellular Dermal Matrix in 194 Submuscular Tissue Expander-Based Breast Reconstructions: A Single-Surgeon Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Studies have cited possible complications and increased fluid accumulation in implant-based breast reconstruction using acellular dermal matrix. The authors propose a novel approach, manually meshing acellular dermal matrix using a skin graft mesher before use in expander-based breast reconstruction. The authors investigated postoperative drain time, complication rates, pain, and length of hospital stay in meshed versus unmeshed acellular dermal matrix cohorts.

METHODS

One hundred fourteen patients and 194 reconstructed breasts were included overall. Of these, 99 patients were included in the pain and postoperative length of hospital stay analysis. Independent t test and chi-square analyses were used for bivariate comparisons. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to further delineate impact of meshing acellular dermal matrix on drain time, postoperative parenteral narcotic requirements, and length of stay between the two cohorts.

RESULTS

The meshed acellular dermal matrix cohort had lower overall complication rates compared with the unmeshed cohort. Multiple linear regression analyses showed meshing the acellular dermal matrix alone decreased drain time by 7.3 days, and decreased postoperative parenteral narcotic requirements by 77 percent (20 mg morphine). Furthermore, it was the only significant predictor for a decrease in length of stay.

CONCLUSIONS

Meshing acellular dermal matrix significantly decreased the time needed for postoperative drains. Statistical analysis showed significantly decreased overall and minor complication rates in the meshed cohort. Meshing significantly decreased parenteral narcotic requirements and, importantly, also decreased length of stay. All of these factors have important implications regarding cost and quality of care in expander-based breast reconstruction.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, III.

Nerve Block for Septorhinoplasty: A Retrospective Observational Study of Postoperative Complications in 24 Hours

Septorhinoplasty is a surgical procedure that provides functional improvements and esthetic adjustments to the appearance of the nose. Pain is a common postoperative complication, and pain management is known to decrease postoperative complications and total cost. Local anesthetics can cost-effectively decrease postoperative pain scores and reduce analgesic requirements.

The primary objective of this study was to assess the effect of bilateral facial nerve blocks given with general anesthesia on pain scores and the use of postoperative analgesia. The secondary objective was to compare the vital signs stability between a group given bilateral facial nerve blocks with general anesthesia and a group given general anesthesia only.

We conducted a retrospective observational study among 40 patients who were divided into two groups, each containing 20 patients. The patients in the nerve block (NB) group received general anesthesia and bilateral facial blocks of the infraorbital and infratrochlear nerves via 5 ml of 0.25% levobupivacaine with 5 ml of diluted adrenaline 1:100,000. Patients in the Control group received general anesthesia only. Both groups received the same local injection of a mixture of 5 ml of 1% lidocaine and 5 ml of 1:100,000 epinephrine at the surgical site, along with the standard general anesthesia. A numerical rating scale, the visual analog scale (VAS), was used to evaluate postoperative pain at 15, 30, and 45 minutes postoperatively, and the stability of the vital signs was also assessed.

The results showed that using bilateral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve block injection with 0.25% levobupivacaine for patients who underwent septorhinoplasty under general anesthesia provided greater stability of vital signs but had no effect on the pain score or analgesia need. Further assessment should be performed in a larger number of patients to either confirm or refute these results. Additional studies could be conducted in several hospitals within the Kingdom to determine how broadly applicable nerve blockade is in reducing pain sensation.

Erector Spinae Plane Block Decreases Pain and Opioid Consumption in Breast Surgery: Systematic Review

Adequate control of acute postoperative pain is crucial in breast surgeries, as it is a significant factor in the development of persistent chronic pain. Inadequate postoperative pain control increases length of hospital stays and risk of severe complications. Erector spinae plane block (ESPB) is a novel regional block that has the ability to sufficiently block unilateral multidermatomal sensation from T1 to L3. By reviewing the literature on ESPB, this paper aimed to elucidate its efficacy in breast surgery analgesia and its role in addressing the opioid crisis in North America.

Effects of Bilateral Infraorbital and Infratrochlear Nerve Block on Emergence Agitation after Septorhinoplasty: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Emergence agitation is common after septorhinoplasty, and postoperative pain is the main risk factor for this condition. Infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve block have been reported to facilitate pain management in patients after nasal procedures. The effect of peripheral nerve block on the incidence of emergence agitation has not been evaluated. Sixty-six patients that were scheduled for septorhinoplasty were assigned to receive bilateral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve block with either 8 mL of 0.5% ropivacaine (Block group) or isotonic saline (Sham Block group). The incidence of emergence agitation was evaluated using the Riker sedation-agitation scale. Analgesic consumption, hemodynamic parameters, postoperative pain scores, adverse events, and patient satisfaction with analgesia were evaluated. The incidence of emergence agitation was lower in the Block group than in the Sham Block group (6 (20.0%) versus 20 (62.5%), p = 0.002). The mean intraoperative remifentanil consumption was lower in the Block group than in the Sham Block group (0.074 ± 0.014 μg/kg/min. versus 0.093 ± 0.019 μg/kg/min., respectively, p < 0.0001), as was the proportion of patients that needed postoperative tramadol administration and median postoperative pain score at 0–2 h after surgery (9 (30.0%) versus 21 (65.6%), p = 0.011; 3.0 (2.0–4.0) versus 4.0 (3.0–4.0), p < 0.0001, respectively). Hemodynamic parameters and the incidence of adverse events were similar between the two groups. The median patient satisfaction score with respect to analgesia was higher in the Block group than in the Sham Block group (3.5 (3.0–4.0) versus 3.0 (3.0–4.0), respectively, p = 0.034). The preoperative bilateral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve block decreased the incidence of emergence agitation after septorhinoplasty.

Postoperative Ketorolac in Breast and Body Contouring Procedures: A Nationwide Claims Analysis

BACKGROUND

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are useful alternatives to narcotics for analgesia. However, concerns remain regarding their safety. The authors evaluated ketorolac use and complications. We hypothesized that no association between ketorolac and morbidity exists in patients undergoing body contouring.

METHODS

Truven MarketScan claims database was analyzed for patients undergoing breast and body contouring surgery. Patients selected received ketorolac and were enrolled a minimum of 90 days. The authors performed a multivariable logistic regression to calculate risk of morbidity, adjusting for clinical and sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

Among the 106,279 patients enrolled, 4924 (4.6 percent) received postoperative ketorolac. In multivariable regression analysis, ketorolac was not associated with hematoma (OR, 1.20; 95 percent CI, 0.99 to 1.46; p > 0.05). There was an increased rate of reoperation within 72 hours (OR, 1.22; 95 percent CI, 1.00 to 1.49; p < 0.05; number needed to harm, 262 patients). Ketorolac was associated with fewer readmissions (OR, 0.76; 95 percent CI, 0.62 to 0.93; p < 0.05; number needed to treat, 87 patients), with a reduction in the rate of pain as a readmission diagnosis (0.6 percent versus 4.3 percent; p = 0.021). Ketorolac was associated with seroma, but this association may not be causal (OR, 1.28; 95 percent CI, 1.05 to 1.57; p < 0.05; number needed to harm, 247 patients). Ketorolac provided an estimated savings of $157 per patient.

CONCLUSIONS

The benefits of ketorolac likely outweigh the risks after surgery. Absolute differences in reoperation rates were low, and improved rates of hospital admission impact cost savings. The authors advocate postoperative ketorolac once the wound is hemostatic.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, III.

Multimodal Pain Management for Enhanced Recovery: Reinforcing the Shift From Traditional Pathways Through Nurse-Led Interventions

Despite recent advances in perioperative patient care, postsurgical pain continues to be undermanaged. There is increasing acceptance of the concept that effective postsurgical pain management is best achieved through combined use of more than one analgesic agent or technique, and overreliance on opioids produces unwanted side effects limiting their utility. Accordingly, a balanced, multimodal approach to pain management within the larger framework of an Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) pathway has become standard at many institutions for perioperative care, to control postsurgical pain, reduce opioid-related adverse events, hasten postsurgical recovery, and shorten length of hospital stay. The success of ERAS is dependent on nurses and the multidisciplinary team to execute its standardized processes across the care continuum, including patient education, perioperative care, and postsurgical evaluation. Here, we review current concepts related to multimodal analgesia and ERAS regarding care of adult surgical patients and discuss the perioperative nurse's role within this paradigm.

Multimodal Analgesia in Breast Surgical Procedures: Technical and Pharmacological Considerations for Liposomal Bupivacaine Use

Enhanced recovery after surgery is a multidisciplinary perioperative clinical pathway that uses evidence-based interventions to improve the patient experience as well as increase satisfaction, reduce costs, mitigate the surgical stress response, accelerate functional recovery, and decrease perioperative complications. One of the most important elements of enhanced recovery pathways is multimodal pain management. Herein, aspects relating to multimodal analgesia following breast surgical procedures are discussed with the understanding that treatment decisions should be individualized and guided by sound clinical judgment. A review of liposomal bupivacaine, a prolonged-release formulation of bupivacaine, in the management of postoperative pain following breast surgical procedures is presented, and technical guidance regarding optimal administration of liposomal bupivacaine is provided.

Infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve blocks combined with general anaesthesia for outpatient rhinoseptoplasty: A prospective randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

INTRODUCTION

We conducted a study to determine the efficacy of bilateral extraoral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve blocks during outpatient rhinoseptoplasty under general anaesthesia.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this prospective, double-blind, randomised, controlled trial, 40 adult patients undergoing outpatient rhinoseptoplasty under general anaesthesia were assigned to receive bilateral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve blocks with either 10mL of 0.25% levobupivacaine (Group LB) or isotonic saline (control group). Patients in Group LB received 0.1mL/kg of isotonic saline as a placebo and patients in the control group received 0.1mL/kg of morphine. The primary endpoint was total perioperative morphine consumption (intraoperative and in the post-anaesthesia care unit). The secondary endpoints were pain scores, time spent in the post-anaesthesia care unit and the outpatient ward, block-related complications and patient satisfaction.

RESULTS

The total dose of perioperative morphine was lower in Group LB than in the control group (2.5±2.8mg versus 9.5±3.5mg, respectively, P<0.001). The mean±SD or median [IQR] times spent in the post-anaesthesia care unit (60±10min and 78±33min, respectively, P<0.03) and in the outpatient ward (210 [178-223] min versus 275 [250-300] min, respectively, P<0.001) were lower in Group LB than in the control group. There were no differences between groups for other endpoints.

CONCLUSION

Bilateral extraoral infraorbital and infratrochlear nerve blocks performed with 0.25% levobupivacaine during general anaesthesia combining remifentanil and desflurane reduce the perioperative dose of morphine and the time spent in the post-anaesthesia care unit and the outpatient ward in adult patients undergoing outpatient rhinoseptoplasty.