Total Face, Eyelids, Ears, Scalp, and Skeletal Subunit Transplant: A Reconstructive Solution for the Full Face and Total Scalp Burn

Emerging Technologies

In this article, an array of new developments in burn care, from diagnosis to post-burn reconstruction and re-integration, will be discussed. Multidisciplinary advances have allowed the implementation of technologies that provide more accurate assessments of burn depth, improved outcomes when treating full-thickness burns, and enhanced scar tissue management. Incorporating these new treatment modalities into current practice is essential to improving the standard of burn care and developing the next generation of burn wound management methodologies.

Long-term skeletal, cephalometric, and volumetric changes in two Helsinki bimaxillary face transplant patients

Analysis of skeletal, cephalometric, and volumetric changes and occlusion during long-term follow-up was performed for two patients who underwent bimaxillary facial transplantation (FT). The study material consisted of the follow-up data of two bimaxillary composite FT performed in Helsinki University Hospital, one in 2016 and the other in 2018. Serial three-dimensional computed tomography scans obtained during follow-up (6 years for patient 1, 4 years for patient 2) were analyzed. The position of the maxilla remained stable in both patients. At 4 and 6 years, the changes in the anterior maxilla were ≤1 mm, while the anterior mandible had moved 2.6-4 mm anteriorly and the mandibular midline 0.4-3.7 mm to the left side. Patient 1 underwent re-osteosynthesis 4 months after transplantation due to mandibular non-union. Patient 2 had a sagittal mandibular osteotomy at 15 months after FT due to lateral crossbite and tension created by temporomandibular joint rotation. Thereafter both patients had a stable occlusion. A continuous bone volume reduction in the mandible was noticed in both patients (6% and 9% reduction of the transplanted volume). The volume of the transplanted maxilla decreased during the early postoperative period but increased back to the original transplanted volume during the follow-up.

Acute Rejection Rates in Vascularized Composite Allografts: A Systematic Review of Case Reports

INTRODUCTION

Vascularized Composite Allografts (VCA) are usually performed in a full major histocompatibility complex mismatch setting, with a risk of acute rejection depending on factors such as the type of immunosuppression therapy and the quality of graft preservation. In this systematic review, we present the different immunosuppression protocols used in VCA and point out relationships between acute rejection rates and possible factors that might influence it.

METHODS

This systematic review was performed according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. We systematically searched Medline (PubMed), Embase, and The Cochrane Library between November 2022 and February 2023, using following Mesh Terms: Transplant, Transplantation, Hand, Face, Uterus, Penis, Abdominal Wall, Larynx, and Composite Tissue Allografts. All VCA case reports and reviews describing multiple case reports were included.

RESULTS

We discovered 211 VCA cases reported. The preferred treatment was a combination of antithymocyte globulins, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), tacrolimus, and steroids; and a combination of MMF, tacrolimus, and steroids for induction and maintenance treatment, respectively. Burn patients showed a higher acute rejection rate (P = 0.073) and were administered higher MMF doses (P = 0.020).

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to previous statements, the field of VCA is not rapidly evolving, as it has encountered challenges in addressing immune-related concerns. This is highlighted by the absence of a standardized immunosuppression regimen. Consequently, more substantial data are required to draw more conclusive results regarding the immunogenicity of VCAs and the potential superiority of one immunosuppressive treatment over another. Future efforts should be made to report the VCA surgeries comprehensively, and muti-institutional long-term prospective follow-up studies should be performed to compare the number of acute rejections with influencing factors.

First Composite Woman-to-Woman Facial Transplantation in Turkey: Challenges and Lessons to Be Learned

ABSTRACT

After the first face transplantation from woman to woman we performed in our clinic, it was aimed to eliminate the lack of knowledge about the subject in the literature by transferring our experiences and long-term results to the problems we had with the patient. A 20-year-old patient underwent partial osteomyocutaneous facial transplant (22nd facial transplant), which included 2 functional units of the face. The patient had no major problems in the early period and had a good aesthetic appearance. In the postoperative period, the patient ended her social isolation and adopted the transplanted face.In the late period, secondary surgical interventions, management of the problems caused by immunosuppression, and the patient's living in a remote location to our clinic were the difficulties encountered. Six revision surgeries were performed after the transplantation. Due to immunosuppression, opportunistic infections and metabolic problems required intermittent hospitalization. The patient died at the end of 56 months because of complications secondary to immunosuppression.A successful transplant involves the management of long-term problems rather than a successful tissue transfer in the early period. In today's conditions, long-term success can be achieved with a good patient compliance, as well as each team member should take an active role in the team at the transplantation centers. More case series are needed to adapt the standard treatment and follow-up protocols for solid organ transplantations for composite tissue allotransplantations. This will be possible by sharing the results and experiences transparently in the centers where face transplantation is performed worldwide.

A Systematic Review of the Reported Complications Related to Facial and Upper Extremity Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation

INTRODUCTION

Twenty three years after the first successful upper extremity transplantation, the role of vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) in the world of transplantation remains controversial. Face and upper extremity reconstruction via transplantation have become successful options for highly selected patients with severe tissue and functional deficit when conventional reconstructive options are no longer available. Despite clear benefit in these situations, VCA has a significant potential for complications that are more frequent when compared to visceral organ transplantation. This study intended to perform an updated systematic review on such complications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MEDLINE database via PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library were searched. Face and upper extremity VCA performed between 1998 and 2021 were included in the study. Relevant media and press conferences reports were also included. Complications related to face and upper extremity VCA were recorded and reviewed including their clinical characteristics and complications.

RESULTS

One hundred fifteen patients underwent facial (43%) or upper extremity (57%) transplantation. Overall, the surgical complication rate was 23%. Acute and chronic rejection was identified in 89% and 11% of patients, respectively. Fifty eight percent of patients experienced opportunistic infection. Impaired glucose metabolism was the most common immunosuppression-related complication other than infection. Nineteen percent of patients ultimately experienced partial or complete allograft loss.

CONCLUSIONS

Complications related to VCA are a significant source of morbidity and potential mortality. Incidence of such complications is higher than previously reported and should be strongly emphasized in patient consent process. Strict patient selection criteria, complex preoperative evaluation, consideration of alternatives, and thorough disclosure to patients should be routinely performed prior to VCA indication.

The First Successful Combined Full Face and Bilateral Hand Transplant

BACKGROUND

Vascularized composite allotransplantation has redefined the frontiers of plastic and reconstructive surgery. At the cutting edge of this evolving paradigm, the authors present the first successful combined full face and bilateral hand transplant.

METHODS

A 21-year-old man presented for evaluation with sequelae of an 80 percent total body surface area burn injury sustained after a motor vehicle accident. The injury included full face and bilateral upper extremity composite tissue defects, resulting in reduced quality of life and loss of independence. Multidisciplinary evaluation confirmed eligibility for combined face and bilateral hand transplantation. The operative approach was validated through 11 cadaveric rehearsals utilizing computerized surgical planning. Institutional review board and organ procurement organization approvals were obtained. The recipient, his caregiver, and the donor family consented to the procedure.

RESULTS

Combined full face (i.e., eyelids, ears, nose, lips, and skeletal subunits) and bilateral hand transplantation (i.e., forearm level) was performed over 23 hours on August 12 to 13, 2020. Triple induction and maintenance immunosuppressive therapy and infection prophylaxis were administered. Plasmapheresis was necessary postoperatively. Minor revisions were performed over seven subsequent operations, including five left upper extremity, seven right upper extremity, and seven facial secondary procedures. At 8 months, the patient was approaching functional independence and remained free of acute rejection. He had significantly improved range of motion, motor power, and sensation of the face and hand allografts.

CONCLUSIONS

Combined face and bilateral hand transplantation is feasible. This was the most comprehensive vascularized composite allotransplantation procedure successfully performed to date, marking a new milestone in plastic and reconstructive surgery for patients with otherwise irremediable injuries.

Special Considerations in Face Transplantation: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Vascularized composite allotransplantation of the face is an exceedingly complex procedure, requiring extensive planning and surgical precision in order to successfully manage patients with facial disfigurements. This review aims to present an overview of the salient anatomic considerations in facial transplantation, as well as give attention to unique patient populations and special considerations.A literature review was performed in search of articles pertaining to considerations in facial transplantation using the databases PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane. Articles selected for further review included full-text articles with an emphasis on specific anatomic defects and how they were addressed in the transplant process, as well as management of special patient populations undergoing facial transplantation. In total, 19 articles were deemed appropriate for inclusion.The use of computer-assisted technologies for the planning portion of the procedure, as well as intraoperative efficiency, has yielded favorable results and can be considered as part of the operative plan. The ultimate outcome is dependent upon the synchronization of subunits of the allograft and the desired functional outcomes, including osseous, ocular, oral, and otologic considerations. Management of specific pathology and subgroups of patients are critical aspects. Although pediatric face transplantation has not yet been performed, it is a likely a future step in the evolution of this procedure.When performing a face transplantation, many components must be considered pre-, intra-, and post-operatively. This systematic review presents specific anatomic considerations, as well as information about special patient populations within this crosssection of multidisciplinary microsurgery, psychiatry, and transplant immunology.

The Second Helsinki Face Transplantation and the World Experience of Revision Surgery During the First Posttransplantation Year

INTRODUCTION

We conducted a review of all surgical interventions performed during the first postoperative year in published face transplantation (FT) cases. In addition, we herein present our second FT patient, a full-face composite FT with an emphasis on surgical revisions after transplantation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature review was conducted and resulted in 376 publications of which 33 included reference to surgical interventions during the first post-FT year. For our second FT patient, a thorough review of all medical records was performed.

RESULTS

Among the first 41 FTs, 32 FT patients had reports with reference to corrective surgery during the first year (22 composite and 10 soft-tissue FTs). Soft-tissue FTs had a median of 2 procedures (range, 1-8 procedures), and composite FTs, 3 procedures per patient (range, 1-9 procedures). Nearly all early interventions (<1 month) were performed in composite FT patients (anastomotic occlusion, hematoma, sialocele, palatinal dehiscence). The most common late interventions were scar corrections, tissue suspensions, periorbital corrections, osseal and dental procedures, and interventions for palatinal dehiscence and sialocele. Our second FT patient has recovered well and has undergone 3 surgical interventions during the first year.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical interventions are very common during the first postoperative year after FT, and composite FTs are more prone to complications necessitating surgical intervention than soft-tissue FTs. There is a wide variety of complications reflecting the heterogeneity of FT allografts. Corrective surgery in FT patients appears safe with only a few reported complications.

Attitudes May Be Hard to Change: Canadian Organ Donors Consider Face and Hand Donation

Despite the success of composite tissue allograft (CTA) such as face and hand transplant at improving recipients’ quality of life, organ donors’ hesitation needs to be better understood. The aim of the study was to assess Canadian organ donors’ willingness to donate their face and hands, and the efficacy of an educational intervention.

Clinical and preclinical tolerance protocols for vascularized composite allograft transplantation

The field of vascularized composite allografts (VCAs) has undergone significant advancement in recent decades, and VCAs are increasingly common and accepted in the clinical setting, bringing hope of functional recovery to patients with debilitating injuries. A major obstacle facing the widespread application of VCAs is the side effect profile associated with the current immunosuppressive regimen, which can cause a wide array of complications such as infection, malignancy, and even death. Significant concerns remain regarding whether the treatment outweighs the risk. The potential solution to this dilemma would be achieving VCA tolerance, which would allow recipients to receive allografts without significant immunosuppression and its sequelae. Promising tolerance protocols are being studied in kidney transplantation; four major trials have attempted to withdraw immunosuppressive treatment with various successes. The common theme in all four trials is the use of radiation treatment and donor cell transplantation. The knowledge gained from these trials can provide valuable insight into the development of a VCA tolerance protocol. Despite similarities, VCAs present additional barriers compared to kidney allografts regarding tolerance induction. VCA donors are likely to be deceased, which limits the time for significant pre-conditioning. VCA donors are also more likely to be human leukocyte antigen–mismatched, which means that tolerance must be induced across major immunological barriers. This review also explores adjunct therapies studied in large animal models that could be the missing element in establishing a safe and stable tolerance induction method.

Imaging of Facial Reconstruction and Face Transplantation

Pre- and postoperative imaging is increasingly used in plastic and reconstructive surgery for the evaluation of bony and soft tissue anatomy. Imaging plays an important role in preoperative planning. In the postoperative setting, imaging is used for the assessment of surgical positioning, bone healing and fusion, and for the assessment of early or delayed surgical complications. This article will focus on imaging performed for surgical reconstruction of the face, including orthognathic surgery, facial feminization procedures for gender dysphoria, and face transplantation.

Virtual 3D planning and prediction accuracy in two bimaxillary face transplantations in Helsinki

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to describe the 3D planning process used in our two composite face transplantations and to analyze the accuracy of a virtual transplantation in predicting the end-result of face transplantation.

METHODS

The study material consists of two bimaxillary composite face transplantations performed in the Helsinki University Hospital in 2016 and 2018. Computed tomography (CT) scans of the recipient and donor were used to define the osteotomy lines and perform the virtual face transplantation and to 3D print customized osteotomy guides for recipient and donor. Differences between cephalometric linear and angular measurements of the virtually simulated and the actual postoperative face transplantation were calculated.

RESULTS

No changes to the planned osteotomy lines were needed during surgery. The differences in skeletal linear and angular measurements of the virtually simulated predictions and the actual postoperative face transplantations of the two patients varied between 0.1-5.6 mm and 0.7°-4°. The postoperative skeletal relationship between maxilla and mandible in both patients were almost identical in comparison to the predictions.

CONCLUSIONS

3D planning is feasible and provides close to accurate bone reconstruction in face transplantation. Preoperative virtual transplantation assists planning and improves the outcome in bimaxillary face transplantation.

Secondary Rhinoplasty for Unilateral Cleft Nasal Deformity

BACKGROUND

Secondary cleft rhinoplasty presents some of the most challenging cases of both cosmetic and functional nasal deformities. Understanding the anatomy and growth abnormality seen with the cleft nasal deformity helps to tailor surgical management. This article seeks to expand on the application of current concepts in secondary rhinoplasty for unilateral cleft lip nasal deformity.

METHODS

The authors review nasal analysis in the cleft rhinoplasty patient and provide the surgical management for each aspect in the secondary cleft rhinoplasty.

RESULTS

The secondary rhinoplasty was divided into seven areas: piriform hypoplasia, septal reconstruction, dorsal reshaping, tip reshaping, tip projection, alar reshaping, and alar repositioning. Surgical management for each is provided.

CONCLUSION

Secondary cleft rhinoplasty requires an understanding of the structural dysmorphology, and the use of cosmetic, functional, and secondary rhinoplasty techniques for its successful management.

Long-term Outcomes After Facial Allotransplantation: Systematic Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Facial vascularized composite allotransplantation (fVCA) represents a reconstructive approach that enables superior improvements in functional and esthetic restoration compared with conventional craniomaxillofacial reconstruction. Outcome reports of fVCA are usually limited to short-term follow-up or single-center experiences. We merge scientific literature on reported long-term outcome data to better define the risks and benefits of fVCA.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of PubMed/MEDLINE databases in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. English full-text articles providing data on at least 1 unique fVCA patient, with ≥3 years follow-up, were included.

RESULTS

The search yielded 1812 articles, of which 28 were ultimately included. We retrieved data on 23 fVCA patients with mean follow-up of 5.3 years. More than half of the patients showed improved quality of life, eating, speech, and motor and sensory function following fVCA. On average, the patients had 1 acute cell-mediated rejection and infectious episode per year. The incidence rates of acute rejection and infectious complications were high within first-year posttransplant but declined thereafter. Sixty-five percent of the patients developed at least 1 neoplastic or metabolic complication after transplantation. Chronic vascular rejection was confirmed in 2 patients, leading to allograft loss after 8 and 9 years. Two patient deaths occurred 3.5 and 10.5 years after transplant due to suicide and lung cancer, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Allograft functionality and improvements in quality of life suggest a positive risk-benefit ratio for fVCA. Recurrent acute rejection episodes, chronic rejection, immunosuppression-related complications, and heterogeneity in outcome reporting present ongoing challenges in this field.

Is Digital Animation Superior to Text Resources for Facial Transplantation Education? A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Facial transplantation is a complex surgical procedure that requires education of medical professionals, patients, and the general public. The objective of this randomized controlled trial was to compare the educational efficacy of facial transplantation digital animation versus text resources for teaching medical students a complex surgical procedure and its applicable anatomical and surgical principles.

METHODS

Medical student volunteers were recruited and prospectively randomized to an animation or a text group. Students completed preintervention and postintervention assessments of confidence and knowledge of head and neck anatomy and facial transplantation. Student Evaluations of Educational Quality survey assessed student satisfaction with both tools following study crossover. Knowledge assessment was developed using National Board of Medical Examiners guidelines and content validated by four experts. The Cohen d statistic was used to measure the effect size of each intervention.

RESULTS

Thirty-six students were assigned randomly to the animation group (n = 19) or the text (n = 17) group. Postintervention analysis demonstrated significantly higher performance scores in the animation group compared to the text group (p = 0.029). The animation group had a larger effect size (Cohen d = 1.96 versus 1.27). Only students in the animation group reported significantly improved confidence in head and neck anatomy after the intervention (p = 0.002). Both groups demonstrated significantly increased postintervention confidence in knowledge of facial transplantation (p < 0.001). Satisfaction scores revealed that students significantly favored the animation resource (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Animation can be an effective tool for facial transplantation education and results in improved student knowledge, confidence, and satisfaction compared to text resources. Facial transplantation can also be used as an educational framework for teaching medical students anatomical and surgical principles.

Plastic Surgery amidst the Pandemic: The New York University Experience at the Epicenter of the COVID-19 Crisis

The coronavirus disease of 2019 pandemic became a global threat in a matter of weeks, with its future implications yet to be defined. New York City was swiftly declared the epicenter of the pandemic in the United States as case numbers grew exponentially in a matter of days, quickly threatening to overwhelm the capacity of the health care system. This burgeoning crisis led practitioners across specialties to adapt and mobilize rapidly. Plastic surgeons and trainees within the New York University Langone Health system faced uncertainty in terms of future practice, in addition to immediate and long-term effects on undergraduate and graduate medical education. The administration remained vigilant and adaptive, enacting departmental policies prioritizing safety and productivity, with early deployment of faculty for clinical support at the front lines. The authors anticipate that this pandemic will have far-reaching effects on the future of plastic surgery education, trends in the pursuit of elective surgical procedures, and considerable consequences for certain research endeavors. Undoubtedly, there will be substantial impact on the physical and mental well-being of health care practitioners across specialties. Coordinated efforts and clear lines of communication between the Department of Plastic Surgery and its faculty and trainees allowed a concerted effort toward the immediate challenge of tempering the spread of coronavirus disease of 2019 and preserving structure and throughput for education and research. Adaptation and creativity have ultimately allowed for early rebooting of in-person clinical and surgical practice. The authors present their coordinated efforts and lessons gleaned from their experience to inform their community’s preparedness as this formidable challenge evolves.

Facial Transplantation: Principles and Evolving Concepts

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Appreciate the evolution and increasing complexity of transplanted facial allografts over the past two decades. 2. Discuss indications and contraindications for facial transplantation, and donor and recipient selection criteria and considerations. 3. Discuss logistical, immunologic, and cost considerations in facial transplantation, in addition to emerging technologies used. 4. Understand surgical approaches and anatomical and technical nuances of the procedure. 5. Describe aesthetic, functional, and psychosocial outcomes of facial transplantation reported to date.

SUMMARY

This CME article highlights principles and evolving concepts in facial transplantation. The field has witnessed significant advances over the past two decades, with more than 40 face transplants reported to date. The procedure now occupies the highest rung on the reconstructive ladder for patients with extensive facial disfigurement who are not amenable to autologous reconstructive approaches, in pursuit of optimal functional and aesthetic outcomes. Indications, contraindications, and donor and recipient considerations for the procedure are discussed. The authors also review logistical, immunologic, and cost considerations of facial transplantation. Surgical approaches to allograft procurement and transplantation, in addition to technical and anatomical nuances of the procedure, are provided. Finally, the authors review aesthetic, functional, and psychosocial outcomes that have been reported to date.

Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation in Burn Reconstruction: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Vascularized composite allotransplantation has been successfully employed for burn reconstruction since 2003. However, its safety in this population has been questioned due to high levels of alloimmunization from burn care-related tissue exposures. To investigate this, a systematic review of vascularized composite allotransplantation employed for burn reconstruction was conducted, evaluating literature from January 2000 to September 2019. Articles containing vascularized composite allotransplantation, composite tissue allotransplantation, and burn reconstructive surgery were included; articles without published outcomes were excluded. Observational meta-analysis of pooled mortality and acute rejection episodes relative to allograft type (face vs extremity) and reconstruction type (burn vs non-burn) was performed. Twenty-four of the 63 identified articles met the criteria for inclusion, with 5 more articles added after secondary review. To date, 152 allotransplantations have been performed in 117 patients: 45 face transplants and 107 extremity transplants. Of these, 34 (22%) were performed for burn reconstruction in 25 patients (21%) with an overall higher 1-year mortality rate (12.0% vs 1.1%, P  = .030). Of these deaths, 75% received three or more simultaneous allografts. Additionally, more episodes of acute rejection occurred compared to non-burn patients (4.4 vs 2.4, P  = .035). Vascularized composite allotransplantation performed for burn reconstruction was found to be associated with a greater risk of 1-year mortality and nearly twice the number of episodes of acute rejection. Future studies should seek to identify unique risk factors of burn patients undergoing this operation and evaluate the relationship between antigenic burden and surgical outcomes.

Maxillofacial Bony Considerations in Facial Transplantation

Alloplastic facial transplantation has become a new rung on the proverbial reconstructive ladder for severe facial wounds in the past couple of decades. Since the first transfer including bony components in 2006, numerous facial allotransplantations across many countries have been successfully performed, many incorporating multiple bony elements of the face. There are many unique considerations to facial transplantation of bone, however, beyond the considerations of simple soft tissue transfer. Herein, we review the current literature and considerations specific to bony facial transplantation focusing on the pertinent surgical anatomy, preoperative planning needs, intraoperative harvest and inset considerations, and postoperative protocols.

Communication Efficiency in a Face Transplant Recipient: Determinants and Therapeutic Implications

We longitudinally assessed speech intelligibility (percent words correct/pwc), communication efficiency (intelligible words per minute/iwpm), temporal control markers (speech and pause coefficients of variation), and formant frequencies associated with lip motion in a 41-year-old face transplant recipient. Pwc and iwpm at 13 months post-transplantation were both higher than preoperative values. Multivariate regression demonstrated that temporal markers and all formant frequencies associated with lip motion were significant predictors (P < 0.05) of communication efficiency, highlighting the interplay of these variables in generating intelligible and effective speech. These findings can guide us in developing personalized rehabilitative approaches in face transplant recipients for optimal speech outcomes.

Indocyanine Green Angiography Predicts Tissue Necrosis More Accurately Than Thermal Imaging and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in a Rat Perforator Flap Model

BACKGROUND

Clinical examination alone is neither sensitive nor specific for predicting flap necrosis, so several technologies, including indocyanine green angiography, thermal imaging (using the FLIR ONE), and near-infrared spectroscopy, have been developed to supplement perfusion assessment. This study aims to compare the accuracy of these three methods for intraoperatively predicting clinical flap necrosis in a rat perforator flap model. The authors hypothesized that near-infrared spectroscopy, assessing oxygenation rather than direct perfusion, would yield significantly different predictions.

METHODS

A 10 × 3-cm epigastric perforator flap was elevated in 14 adult male rats weighing 250 ± 50 g. Flap perfusion was assessed immediately after flap elevation using thermal imaging, near-infrared spectroscopy, and indocyanine green angiography. Measurements were correlated to the clinical endpoint and gold standard of flap necrosis on postoperative day 7.

RESULTS

All three technologies detected significant differences in perfusion along flap length (all p < 0.001), and were associated with significant differences in the odds of developing flap necrosis (all p < 0.001). The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves were 0.948 for indocyanine green angiography as an absolute value, 0.873 for relative changes with thermal imaging, and 0.792 for tissue oxygenation. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy for indocyanine green angiography measured as an absolute value were the highest at 97.8, 87.5, and 92 percent, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Indocyanine green angiography most accurately predicted flap necrosis in this study; however, tissue oximetry and thermal imaging were also capable of predicting necrosis and represented potentially less expensive or more readily available alternatives for objective perfusion assessment. Additional research can further delineate their roles and cost-efficacy in clinical practice.

Facial Transplantation: Complications, Outcomes, and Long-Term Management Strategies

Within the past two decades, vascularized facial composite allotransplantation has evolved into a viable option in the reconstructive surgeons' armamentarium for patients with extensive facial disfigurements. As it has expanded the frontiers of microsurgical reconstructive techniques, facial transplantation has come to garner widespread interest within both the medical community and the general public. The procedure has established itself as an amalgamation of the forefronts of reconstructive microsurgery, immunology, and transplantation science. Therein too lies its complexity as multifaceted scientific developments are met with ethical and social issues. Both patients and physicians are faced with the everlasting challenges of immunosuppression regimens and their inherent complications, long-term aesthetic and functional considerations, the role of revision procedures, and the inevitable psychosocial implications. This article reflects on the medical and surgical advancements in facial transplantation surgery and highlights anticipated future challenges. It aims to encourage discussion regarding anticipated barriers to current practice and suggest future directions as we transition into the next phase of facial allograft transplantation.

Equity in access to facial transplantation

We examine ethical considerations in access to facial transplantation (FT), with implications for promoting health equity. As a form of vascularised composite allotransplantation, FT is still considered innovative with a relatively low volume of procedures performed to date by a small number of active FT programmes worldwide. However, as numbers continue to increase and institutions look to establish new FT programmes, we anticipate that attention will shift from feasibility towards ensuring the benefits of FT are equitably available to those in need. This manuscript assesses barriers to care and their ethical implications across a number of considerations, with the intent of mapping various factors relating to health equity and fair access to FT. Evidence is drawn from an evolving clinical experience as well as published scholarship addressing several dimensions of access to FT. We also explore novel concerns that have yet to be mentioned in the literature.

Anesthetic Considerations in Facial Transplantation: Experience at NYU Langone Health and Systematic Review

Anesthetic considerations are integral to the success of facial transplantation (FT), yet limited evidence exists to guide quality improvement. This study presents an institutional anesthesia protocol, defines reported anesthetic considerations, and provides a comprehensive update to inform future directions of the field.

Comprehensive Assessment of Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation Patient-Oriented Online Resources

INTRODUCTION

Online resources have become a major source of medical information for the general public. To date, there has not been an assessment of patient-oriented online resources for face and upper extremity transplantation candidates and patients. The goal of this study is to perform a comprehensive assessment of these resources.

METHODS

Our analysis relied on 2 dimensions: comprehensiveness and readability. Comprehensiveness was evaluated using 14 predetermined variables. Readability was evaluated using 8 different readability scales through the Readability Studio Professional Edition Software (Oleander Software, Ltd, Vandalia, Ohio). Data were also collected from solid organ transplantation (SOT), specifically kidney and liver, programs for comparison.

RESULTS

Face and upper extremity transplantation programs were significantly more likely to list exclusion criteria (73.9% vs 41.2%; P = 0.02), the need for life-long immunosuppression (87.0% vs 58.8%; P = 0.02), and benefits of transplantation (91.3% vs 61.8%; P = 0.01) compared with SOT programs. The average readability level of online resources by all face and upper extremity transplantation programs exceeded the sixth grade reading level recommended by the National Institutes of Health and the American Medical Association. The average reading grade level of online resources by these programs was also significantly higher than those of SOT with both exceeding the recommended reading level (13.95 ± 1.55 vs 12.60 ± 1.65; P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Future efforts in face and upper extremity transplantation should be directed toward developing standardized, comprehensive, and intelligible resources with high-quality content and simple language.

Feasibility and Perception of Cross-sex Face Transplantation to Expand the Donor Pool

Background:

A major challenge in face transplantation (FT) is the limited donor allograft pool. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of cross-sex FT (CSFT) for donor pool expansion by: (1) comparing craniomaxillofacial metrics following CSFT versus same-sex FT (SSFT); and (2) evaluating the public and medical professionals’ perception of CSFT.

Methods:

Seven cadaveric FTs were performed, resulting in both CSFT and SSFT. Precision of bony and soft tissue inset was evaluated by comparing pre- versus post-operative cephalometric and anthropometric measurements. Fidelity of the FT compared to the virtual plan was assessed by imaging overlay techniques. Surveys were administered to medical professionals, medical students, and general population to evaluate opinions regarding CSFT.

Results:

Five CSFTs and 2 SSFTs were performed. Comparison of recipients versus post-transplant outcomes showed that only the bigonial and medial intercanthal distances were statistically different between CSFT and SSFT (P = 0.012 and P = 0.010, respectively). Of the 213 survey participants, more were willing to donate for and undergo SSFT, compared with CSFT (donate: 59.6% versus 53.0%, P = 0.001; receive: 79.5% versus 52.3%, P < 0.001). If supported by research, willingness to receive a CSFT significantly increased to 65.6% (P < 0.001). On non-blinded and blinded assessments, 62.9% and 79% of responses rated the CSFT superior or equal to SSFT, respectively.

Conclusions:

Our study demonstrates similar anthropometric and cephalometric outcomes for CSFT and SSFT. Participants were more reticent to undergo CSFT, with increased willingness if supported by research. CSFT may represent a viable option for expansion of the donor pool in future patients prepared to undergo transplantation.

Enhancing Face Transplant Outcomes: Fundamental Principles of Facial Allograft Revision

Facial transplantation (FT) has become a feasible reconstructive solution for patients with devastating facial injuries. Secondary revisions to optimize functional and aesthetic outcomes are to be expected, yet the optimal timing and approach remain to be determined. The purpose of this study was to analyze all facial allograft revisions reported to date, including the senior author's experience with 3 FTs.

Methods

A literature review was performed, with 2 reviewers independently conducting title and abstract screening, followed by a full-text review. All articles mentioning FT revision surgeries were evaluated. The medical records of the senior author's 3 FT recipients were additionally reviewed.

Results

Initially, 721 articles were captured and 37 were included in the final analysis. Thirty-two FTs were reported to have involved posttransplant allograft revisions, with FT recipients undergoing a mean of 4.8 ± 4.6 revision procedures. The mean duration between FT and the first revision procedure was 149 ± 179 days. A wide spectrum of revisions was identified and categorized as involving the soft tissues, craniofacial skeleton, dentition, oronasal cavity, salivary glands, facial nerve, or ocular region. In the senior author's experience, when indicated, posttransplant occlusal changes and integrity of the donor-recipient intraoral interface were successfully addressed with secondary procedures without allograft compromise or loss.

Conclusions

The worldwide experience shows that secondary procedures are nearly ubiquitous after FT and can be safely performed at various timepoints. The authors thereby establish 5 distinct categories of facial allograft revisions and define 7 critical principles to optimize posttransplant procedures.

Establishing a Clinically Applicable Methodology for Skin Color Matching in Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation

Skin color matching in vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) is an important determinant of aesthetic outcomes. The process of color matching is infrequently described in the literature. The Pantone SkinTone Guide (PSTG) is a handheld tool comprised of realistic skin tone swatches with a corresponding virtual swatch system. A color match acceptability threshold (AT) is defined as the point beyond which >50% of observers deem a given skin tone pairing as unacceptable. In this study, color match acceptability thresholds were developed using the PSTG to help standardize donor-recipient color matching. Four representative colors were chosen across the skin tone spectrum. These standard colors were used to develop a survey asking participants to determine the acceptability of color pairings. Using survey results, ATs were determined for changes in lightness, undertone, and lightness and undertone combined for each of the standard colors. Inter- and intra-rater reliability were determined using Fleiss's Kappa. Participants were more critical of skin tone pairings on the darker versus the lighter end of the spectrum, as evidenced by higher thresholds observed for lighter sample pairs. Additionally, observers were more critical of differences in skin lightness compared with differences in undertone. Intra-rater reliability was fair to substantial, and inter-rater reliability was fair to moderate. The PSTG can be used as a clinical tool to improve the aesthetic outcomes of skin-containing vascularized composite allotransplantation procedures by optimizing donor-recipient skin color matching. This can allow clinicians to complement visual judgment with quantitative reference.

Ocular Considerations in Face Transplantation: Report of 2 Cases and Review of the Literature

PURPOSE

Periorbital injuries are common in face transplantation (FT) candidates. It is therefore essential that the ophthalmologist play a central role in the multidisciplinary treatment of these patients. In this study, the authors perform a comprehensive review of all procedures involving periorbital components, provide an update for the ophthalmology community regarding the current state of the field, and present 2 cases.

METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature for all FT procedures including periorbital components was performed. The authors also present 2 patients who received FT including periorbital components for extensive facial disfigurement. One patient sustained high-energy avulsive ballistic injury and underwent a total face, double jaw, and tongue transplant in 2012. The second patient received a total face, eyelids, ears, and skeletal subunits transplant for extensive facial burns in 2015.

RESULTS

Literature review demonstrated that 22 (54%) of the 41 patients undergoing FT received allografts containing periorbital components. Only 14 cases (64%) reported on the presence of ocular and periocular complications. The most common complications consisted of lower eyelid ectropion and lagophthalmos, and nearly all required revisional procedures. Both patients presented with significant periorbital scarring and demonstrated good visual acuity and aesthetic outcomes at postoperative follow up between 6 and 28 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Face transplantation can address extensive facial and periorbital disfigurement with satisfactory functional and aesthetic outcomes. The majority of FT performed to date have included periorbital components, and postoperative ocular and periocular complications are common. It is critical for ophthalmologists to play a central role in the care of these patients.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Volumetry of Facial Muscles in a Face Transplant Recipient

Face transplantation has evolved into a viable reconstructive option for patients with extensive facial disfigurement. Because the first face transplant procedure was described in 2005, the safety and feasibility of the procedure have been validated, and the focus of the field has shifted toward refining functional and esthetic outcomes. Recovery of muscle function following facial transplantation is critical to achieving optimal facial function and restoring facial expression. Assessment of facial muscle function in face transplant recipients has traditionally relied on clinical evaluation. In this study, we describe longitudinal changes in facial muscle volumes captured through quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in a face transplant recipient and compare these findings with functional outcomes evaluated through clinical assessment.

Facial Transplantation for an Irreparable Central and Lower Face Injury: A Modernized Approach to a Classic Challenge

BACKGROUND

Facial transplantation introduced a paradigm shift in the reconstruction of extensive facial defects. Although the feasibility of the procedure is well established, new challenges face the field in its second decade.

METHODS

The authors' team has successfully treated patients with extensive thermal and ballistic facial injuries with allotransplantation. The authors further validate facial transplantation as a reconstructive solution for irreparable facial injuries. Following informed consent and institutional review board approval, a partial face and double jaw transplantation was performed in a 25-year-old man who sustained ballistic facial trauma. Extensive team preparations, thorough patient evaluation, preoperative diagnostic imaging, three-dimensional printing technology, intraoperative surgical navigation, and the use of dual induction immunosuppression contributed to the success of the procedure.

RESULTS

The procedure was performed on January 5 and 6, 2018, and lasted nearly 25 hours. The patient underwent hyoid and genioglossus advancement for floor-of-mouth dehiscence, and palate wound dehiscence repair on postoperative day 11. Open reduction and internal fixation of left mandibular nonunion were performed on postoperative day 108. Nearly 1 year postoperatively, the patient demonstrates excellent aesthetic outcomes, intelligible speech, and is tolerating an oral diet. He remains free from acute rejection.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors validate facial transplantation as the modern answer to the classic reconstructive challenge imposed by extensive facial defects resulting from ballistic injury. Relying on a multidisciplinary collaborative approach, coupled with innovative emerging technologies and immunosuppression protocols, can overcome significant challenges in facial transplantation and reinforce its position as the highest rung on the reconstructive ladder.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, V.

Dental considerations and the role of prosthodontics and maxillofacial prosthetics in facial transplantation

BACKGROUND

Facial transplantation (FT) is a challenging reconstructive endeavor that requires the expertise of a multidisciplinary team. The specific role of maxillofacial prosthodontists has not yet been reported in detail.

METHODS

This review considers the contributions of prosthodontists throughout the FT process, from patient selection and dental evaluation to long-term dental rehabilitation of the transplant patient postoperatively. Moreover, considerations of dental management are evaluated.

RESULTS

In the almost 40 FT reported in the literature, the most consistently documented contribution by prosthodontists is the fabrication of a donor mask to maintain donor integrity. Though infrequently reported, prosthodontists have the potential to plan and perform a variety of dental procedures and follow-up plans.

CONCLUSIONS

When applicable, facial transplant teams are tasked with providing optimal stomatognathic function and dental occlusion to recipients with severe facial disfigurement. The maxillofacial prosthodontist's contribution is crucial to the long-term dental restoration of the edentulous facial transplant candidate, in addition to the fabrication of the donor mask which fulfills the team's ethical responsibilities.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Maxillofacial prosthodontists play a pivotal role in facial transplantation, particularly when jaw segments are intended for transplantation.

Preclinical Animal Models in Facial Transplantation

The technical feasibility and clinical applicability of facial transplantation (FT) have been demonstrated, yet animal models with different technical nuances and allograft compositions continue to be developed. We sought to provide a comprehensive appraisal of the current scope and value of animal models in FT.

Achievements and Challenges in Facial Transplantation

: The first facial transplantation in 2005 ushered in a new era in reconstructive surgery, offering new possibilities for the repair of severe disfigurements previously limited by conventional techniques. Advances in allograft design, computerized preoperative planning, surgical technique, and postoperative revisions have helped push the boundaries in this new frontier of vascularized composite allotransplantation. Over the past 12 years, 40 of these procedures have been performed across the world, offering the field the opportunity to reflect on current outcomes. Successes achieved in the brief history of facial transplantation have resulted in a new set of obstacles the field must now overcome. In this review, we aim to highlight the achievements, major challenges, and future directions of this rapidly evolving field.

Total Eyelid Transplantation in a Face Transplant: Analysis of Postoperative Periorbital Function

BACKGROUND

Prolonged impairment of protective ocular functions can compromise vision and lead to blindness if uncorrected. Several facial transplants have incorporated periorbital structures with variable eyelid preservation, but objective assessment of post-transplant periorbital function has been limited.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Kinematic data were collected from a full-face recipient that included the fist total eyelid transplantation at 5 separate pre-transplant (PRE) and post-transplant time points (T1-T4). Using optical facial tracking, eyelid movements were tracked during involuntary blinking and compared with controls.

RESULTS

There was significant improvement in right eye aperture from PRE to T1 (β = 5.54, P < 0.001), with no change between T1 and T4. Aperture fluctuated in the left eye, with a temporary decrease between T2 and T3 corresponding with revision brow lift (β = -4.57, P < 0.001). Although improved from the pre-transplantation, right and left eye apertures remained significantly smaller than controls at T1 and T4 (P < 0.001). Similarly, spatial coupling increased from PRE to T1 (β = 0.63, P < 0.001) and remained high at T4, albeit significantly less than controls (P < 0.001). Temporal coupling improved from PRE to T2 (β = 2.29, P < 0.02) and was sustained at subsequent time points, with no difference relative to controls at T4. Considerable improvement was observed on clinical examination, with full functional status.

CONCLUSIONS

Application of a novel method for assessing functional eyelid recovery using facial tracking technology to the first total eyelid transplantation in the setting of a full facial transplant shows clear functional improvement after transplantation and suggests revisions can be performed safely to optimize aesthetic outcomes without permanent negative functional impact.

Computerized Approach to Facial Transplantation: Evolution and Application in 3 Consecutive Face Transplants

Face transplant (FT) candidates present with unique anatomic and functional defects unsuitable for autologous reconstruction, making the accurate design and transplantation of patient-specific allografts particularly challenging. In this case series, we present our computerized surgical planning (CSP) protocol for FT.

Pediatric vascularized composite allotransplantation: What is the landscape for obtaining appropriate donors in the United States?

Listing the world's first pediatric bilateral hand transplant patient for a donor posed many challenges including matching the appropriate donor age, bone size, skin tone, and growth potential in an already limited donor population. This study describes the prevalence and distribution of potential pediatric VCA donors in the United States. We assessed the UNOS database from 2008 to 2015 to identify the prevalence of potential pediatric VCA donors. Standard VCA inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to the dataset for all pediatric solid organ donors. Frequency analyses were performed of characteristics important for VCA matching. The dataset began with 57 300 brain-dead donors and after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria including age <18, decreased to 4663 (8.1%). The number of pediatric potential VCA donors per UNOS region ranged from 11 to 112/year. The majority of pediatric potential VCA donors were blood type O Whites, with the least common profile being blood type AB of "other" ethnicity. The present study confirmed that pediatric VCA donors are rare and may require longer travel times for procurement and listing at multiple centers in order to find a suitable donor. This will be a limiting factor for the expansion of pediatric VCA.

Preoperative Imaging for Facial Transplant: A Guide for Radiologists

Facial transplant (FT) is a viable option for patients with severe craniomaxillofacial deformities. Transplant imaging requires coordination between radiologists and surgeons and an understanding of the merits and limitations of imaging modalities. Digital subtraction angiography and CT angiography are critical to mapping vascular anatomy, while volume-rendered CT allows evaluation of osseous defects and landmarks used for surgical cutting guides. This article highlights the components of successful FT imaging at two institutions and in two index cases. A deliberate stepwise approach to performance and interpretation of preoperative FT imaging, which consists of the modalities and protocols described here, is essential to seamless integration of the multidisciplinary FT team. ^©RSNA, 2019 See discussion on this article by Lincoln .

Changes in Articulatory Control Pre- and Post-Facial Transplant: A Case Report

Purpose Facial transplantation involves partial or total replacement of neuromuscular and skeletal structures of the face, head, and neck using donor tissues and is among the most extensive facial reconstructive procedures. This case report compares changes in speech production and articulator movement in a 44-year-old man from pretransplant to a 13-month posttransplant period. Method Speech production and articulator movement data were examined at 5 time points, once pretransplant and 4 times posttransplant (4, 7, 10, and 13 months), and compared to 4 healthy controls. A motion capture system was used to track jaw and vertical/horizontal lip movement during nonspeech and speech tasks. Speech intelligibility, jaw displacement, lip aperture, and movement variability were measured. Results Speech intelligibility varied across the study period and was restored to control status by 7 months posttransplant. Jaw displacement and lip aperture in the vertical plane significantly increased over time for nonspeech and speech tasks. Changes in horizontal lip movements over time were minimal. Jaw and lip movement variability fluctuated over time and was greater than the controls by 13 months posttransplant. Discussion Findings quantify changes in articulator movement and contributions to improved speech production following facial transplant. Changes reflect the adaptability of the speech motor system and are discussed in relation to pretransplant speech motor control patterns.

Otologic considerations in a full face transplant recipient

Facial transplantation provides a functional and aesthetic solution to severe facial disfigurement previously unresolved by conventional reconstruction. Few facial allografts have been ear containing; hence, there is limited knowledge of the postoperative otologic considerations. We describe the case of a 44-year-old man who underwent transplantation of the total face, eyelids, ears, scalp, and skeletal subunits in 2015 after an extensive thermal injury. We detail the patient's transition from osseointegrated prosthetic ears to an ear-containing facial allograft, and describe the unique surgical approach and challenges encountered. Subsequent bilateral revision meatoplasties were performed, which provided relief from stenosis of the external auditory meatus. Laryngoscope, 129:2008-2011, 2019.