1
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Guo L, Liu X, Su X. The role of TEMRA cell-mediated immune senescence in the development and treatment of HIV disease. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1284293. [PMID: 37901239 PMCID: PMC10602809 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1284293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) has plagued human society for a long time since its discovery, causing a large number of patients to suffer and costing hundreds of millions of medical services every year. Scientists have found that HIV and antiretroviral therapy accelerate immune aging by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction, and that terminal effector memory T cells (TEMRA cells) are crucial in immune aging. This specific subset of effector memory T cells has terminally differentiated properties and exhibits high cytotoxicity and proinflammatory capacity. We therefore explored and described the interplay between exhaustion features, essential markers, functions, and signaling pathways from previous studies on HIV, antiretroviral therapy, immune senescence, and TEMRA cells. Their remarkable antiviral capacity is then highlighted by elucidating phenotypic changes in TEMRA cells during HIV infection, describing changes in TEMRA cells before, during, and after antiretroviral therapy and other drug treatments. Their critical role in complications and cytomegalovirus (CMV)-HIV superinfection is highlighted. These studies demonstrate that TEMRA cells play a key role in the antiviral response and immune senescence during HIV infection. Finally, we review current therapeutic strategies targeting TEMRA cells that may be clinically beneficial, highlight their potential role in HIV-1 vaccine development, and provide perspectives and predictions for related future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihui Guo
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, China Medical University, Shen Yang, China
| | - Xudong Liu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, China Medical University, Shen Yang, China
| | - Xin Su
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, China
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2
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Adams P, Iserentant G, Servais JY, Vandekerckhove L, Vanham G, Seguin-Devaux C. Cytotoxic CD8+ T Cells Expressing CXCR5 Are Detectable in HIV-1 Elite Controllers After Prolonged In Vitro Peptide Stimulation. Front Immunol 2021; 11:622343. [PMID: 33717056 PMCID: PMC7945035 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.622343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is not curative as HIV-1 persists in long-lived viral reservoirs. Consequently, patients are dependent on life-long drug adherence with possible side effects. To overcome these limitations strategies of a functional cure aim at ART free viral remission. In this study, we sought to identify detailed subsets of anti-viral CD8+ T cell immunity linked to natural long-term control of HIV-1 infection. Here, we analyzed HIV controllers and ART suppressed progressors for in vitro viral suppressive capacity (VSC) at baseline and after peptide stimulation. Functional properties and phenotypes of CD8+ T cells were assessed by IFN-γ ELISPOT and 18 color flow cytometry. HIV controllers showed significantly increased suppression at baseline as well as after peptide stimulation. IFN-γ secretion and the proliferation marker Ki67 positively correlated with VSC. Moreover, the detailed phenotype of three distinct multifunctional memory CD8+ T cell subsets were specific traits of HIV controllers of which two correlated convincingly with VSC. Our results underline the importance of multifunctional CD8+ T cell responses during natural control. Especially the role of CXCR5 expressing cytotoxic subsets emphasizes potential surveillance in sites of reservoir persistence and demand further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Adams
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.,Departments of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Gilles Iserentant
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jean-Yves Servais
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | | | - Guido Vanham
- Departments of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Carole Seguin-Devaux
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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3
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Katsuyama E, Suarez-Fueyo A, Bradley SJ, Mizui M, Marin AV, Mulki L, Krishfield S, Malavasi F, Yoon J, Sui SJH, Kyttaris VC, Tsokos GC. The CD38/NAD/SIRTUIN1/EZH2 Axis Mitigates Cytotoxic CD8 T Cell Function and Identifies Patients with SLE Prone to Infections. Cell Rep 2021; 30:112-123.e4. [PMID: 31914379 PMCID: PMC7577012 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) suffer frequent infections that account for significant morbidity and mortality. T cell cytotoxic responses are decreased in patients with SLE, yet the responsible molecular events are largely unknown. We find an expanded CD8CD38high T cell subset in a sub-group of patients with increased rates of infections. CD8CD38high T cells from healthy subjects and patients with SLE display decreased cytotoxic capacity, degranulation, and expression of granzymes A and B and perforin. The key cytotoxicity-related transcription factors T-bet, RUNX3, and EOMES are decreased in CD8CD38high T cells. CD38 leads to increased acetylated EZH2 through inhibition of the deacetylase Sirtuin1. Acetylated EZH2 represses RUNX3 expression, whereas inhibition of EZH2 restores CD8 T cell cytotoxic responses. We propose that high levels of CD38 lead to decreased CD8 T cell-mediated cytotoxicity and increased propensity to infections in patients with SLE, a process that can be reversed pharmacologically. Katsuyama et al. find that an expanded CD8CD38high T cell population in SLE patients is linked to infections. CD8CD38high T cells display decreased cytotoxic capacity by suppressing the expression of related molecules through an NAD+/Sirtuin1/EZH2 pathway. EZH2 inhibitors increase cytotoxicity offering a means to mitigate infection rates in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Katsuyama
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abel Suarez-Fueyo
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sean J Bradley
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Masayuki Mizui
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ana V Marin
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lama Mulki
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Suzanne Krishfield
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Fabio Malavasi
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, Department of Genetics, Biology and Biochemistry, University of Torino, and Fondazione Ricerca Molinette, Torino, Italy
| | - Joon Yoon
- Harvard Chan Bioinformatics Core, Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shannan J Ho Sui
- Harvard Chan Bioinformatics Core, Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vasileios C Kyttaris
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - George C Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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4
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Meziane O, Alexandrova Y, Olivenstein R, Dupuy FP, Salahuddin S, Thomson E, Orlova M, Schurr E, Ancuta P, Durand M, Chomont N, Estaquier J, Bernard NF, Costiniuk CT, Jenabian MA. Peculiar Phenotypic and Cytotoxic Features of Pulmonary Mucosal CD8 T Cells in People Living with HIV Receiving Long-Term Antiretroviral Therapy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 206:641-651. [PMID: 33318292 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
People living with HIV have high burdens of chronic lung disease, lung cancers, and pulmonary infections despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). The rates of tobacco smoking by people living with HIV vastly exceed that of the general population. Furthermore, we showed that HIV can persist within the lung mucosa despite long-term ART. As CD8 T cell cytotoxicity is pivotal for controlling viral infections and eliminating defective cells, we explored the phenotypic and functional features of pulmonary versus peripheral blood CD8 T cells in ART-treated HIV+ and uninfected controls. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and matched blood were obtained from asymptomatic ART-treated HIV+ smokers (n = 11) and nonsmokers (n = 15) and uninfected smokers (n = 7) and nonsmokers (n = 10). CD8 T cell subsets and phenotypes were assessed by flow cytometry. Perforin/granzyme B content, degranulation (CD107a expression), and cytotoxicity against autologous Gag peptide-pulsed CD4 T cells (Annexin V+) following in vitro stimulation were assessed. In all groups, pulmonary CD8 T cells were enriched in effector memory subsets compared with blood and displayed higher levels of activation (HLA-DR+) and exhaustion (PD1+) markers. Significant reductions in proportions of senescent pulmonary CD28-CD57+ CD8 T cells were observed only in HIV+ smokers. Pulmonary CD8 T cells showed lower perforin expression ex vivo compared with blood CD8 T cells, with reduced granzyme B expression only in HIV+ nonsmokers. Bronchoalveolar lavage CD8 T cells showed significantly less in vitro degranulation and CD4 killing capacity than blood CD8 T cells. Therefore, pulmonary mucosal CD8 T cells are more differentiated, activated, and exhausted, with reduced killing capacity in vitro than blood CD8 T cells, potentially contributing to a suboptimal anti-HIV immune response within the lungs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oussama Meziane
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 1Y4, Canada
| | - Yulia Alexandrova
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 1Y4, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Ronald Olivenstein
- Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Franck P Dupuy
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Syim Salahuddin
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 1Y4, Canada
| | - Elaine Thomson
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 1Y4, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Marianna Orlova
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Erwin Schurr
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0C7, Canada
| | - Petronela Ancuta
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada.,Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie, et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Madeleine Durand
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Nicolas Chomont
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada.,Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie, et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jérôme Estaquier
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Nicole F Bernard
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Division of Clinical Immunology, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada; and
| | - Cecilia T Costiniuk
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Division of Infectious Diseases, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Mohammad-Ali Jenabian
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 1Y4, Canada; .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.,Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie, et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
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da Ressureição Sgnotto F, Souza Santos L, Rodrigues de Sousa T, Feitosa de Lima J, Mara da Silva Oliveira L, Sanabani SS, José da Silva Duarte A, Russo Victor J. IgG From HIV-1-Exposed Seronegative and HIV-1-Infected Subjects Differently Modulates IFN-γ Production by Thymic T and B Cells. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2019; 82:e56-e60. [PMID: 31714433 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000002182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ludimila Souza Santos
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Division of Environmental Health, Faculdades Metropolitanas Unidas (FMU), Laureate International Universities, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thamires Rodrigues de Sousa
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Josenilson Feitosa de Lima
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luanda Mara da Silva Oliveira
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sabri Saeed Sanabani
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-03, Hospital das Clínicas (HCFMUSP), School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alberto José da Silva Duarte
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Division of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jefferson Russo Victor
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation LIM-56, Division of Clinical Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Division of Environmental Health, Faculdades Metropolitanas Unidas (FMU), Laureate International Universities, São Paulo, Brazil
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Jong WD, Leal L, Buyze J, Pannus P, Guardo A, Salgado M, Mothe B, Molto J, Moron-Lopez S, Gálvez C, Florence E, Vanham G, Gorp EV, Brander C, Allard S, Thielemans K, Martinez-Picado J, Plana M, García F, Gruters RA. Therapeutic Vaccine in Chronically HIV-1-Infected Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase IIa Trial with HTI-TriMix. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:E209. [PMID: 31817794 PMCID: PMC6963294 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccinations aim to re-educate human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-specific immune responses to achieve durable control of HIV-1 replication in virally suppressed infected individuals after antiretroviral therapy (ART) is interrupted. In a double blinded, placebo-controlled phase IIa multicenter study, we investigated the safety and immunogenicity of intranodal administration of the HIVACAT T cell Immunogen (HTI)-TriMix vaccine. It consists of naked mRNA based on cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) targets of subdominant and conserved HIV-1 regions (HTI), in combination with mRNAs encoding constitutively active TLR4, the ligand for CD40 and CD70 as adjuvants (TriMix). We recruited HIV-1-infected individuals under stable ART. Study-arms HTI-TriMix, TriMix or Water for Injection were assigned in an 8:3:3 ratio. Participants received three vaccinations at weeks 0, 2, and 4 in an inguinal lymph node. Two weeks after the last vaccination, immunogenicity was evaluated using ELISpot assay. ART was interrupted at week 6 to study the effect of the vaccine on viral rebound. The vaccine was considered safe and well tolerated. Eighteen percent (n = 37) of the AEs were considered definitely related to the study product (grade 1 or 2). Three SAEs occurred: two were unrelated to the study product, and one was possibly related to ART interruption (ATI). ELISpot assays to detect T cell responses using peptides covering the HTI sequence showed no significant differences in immunogenicity between groups. There were no significant differences in viral load rebound dynamics after ATI between groups. The vaccine was safe and well tolerated. We were not able to demonstrate immunogenic effects of the vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley de Jong
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lorna Leal
- Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Clínic-HIVACAT, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-HIVACAT, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jozefien Buyze
- Clinical trials unit, Clinical Sciences Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pieter Pannus
- Virology Unit, Biomedical Sciences Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alberto Guardo
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-HIVACAT, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Salgado
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Beatriz Mothe
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Fundació Lluita contra la Sida, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia (UVic-UCC), 085000 Vic, Spain
| | - Jose Molto
- Fundació Lluita contra la Sida, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Sara Moron-Lopez
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gálvez
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Eric Florence
- Virology Unit, Biomedical Sciences Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Guido Vanham
- Virology Unit, Biomedical Sciences Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Eric van Gorp
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Brander
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia (UVic-UCC), 085000 Vic, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sabine Allard
- Department of Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kris Thielemans
- eTheRNA, BVBA (eTheRNA), 2845 Niel, Belgium
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Javier Martinez-Picado
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute- HIVACAT, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia (UVic-UCC), 085000 Vic, Spain
- eTheRNA, BVBA (eTheRNA), 2845 Niel, Belgium
| | - Montserrat Plana
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-HIVACAT, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Felipe García
- Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Clínic-HIVACAT, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-HIVACAT, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rob A Gruters
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Intersection of immune checkpoints and CD8+ T cell noncytolytic suppression of HIV-1 infection: putting on the brakes versus the nuclear option. AIDS 2019; 33:581-583. [PMID: 30702523 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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