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Poletto G, Cecchin D, Sperti S, Filippi L, Realdon N, Evangelista L. Head-to-Head Comparison between Peptide-Based Radiopharmaceutical for PET and SPECT in the Evaluation of Neuroendocrine Tumors: A Systematic Review. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:5516-5530. [PMID: 36354685 PMCID: PMC9689511 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44110373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We compared head-to-head the most used radiolabeled peptides for single photon computed emission tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. The following words, coupled two by two, were used: 68Ga-DOTATOC; 68Ga-DOTATATE; 68Ga-DOTANOC; 99mTc-EDDA/HYNIC-TOC; 64Cu-DOTATATE; and 111In-DTPA-octreotide. Moreover, a second-step search strategy was adopted by using the following combined terms: "Somatostatin receptor imaging,"; "Somatostatin receptor imaging" and "Functional,"; "Somatostatin receptor imaging" and "SPECT,"; and "Somatostatin receptor imaging" and "PET". Eligible criteria were: (1) original articles focusing on the clinical application of the radiopharmaceutical agents in NETs; (2) original articles in the English language; (3) comparative studies (head-to-head comparative or matched-paired studies). Editorials, letters to the editor, reviews, pictorial essays, clinical cases, or opinions were excluded. A total of 1077 articles were found in the three electronic databases. The full texts of 104 articles were assessed for eligibility. Nineteen articles were finally included. Most articles focused on the comparison between 111In-DTPA-Octreotide and 68Ga-DOTATOC/TATE. Few papers compared 64Cu-DOTATATE and 68Ga-DOTATOC/TATE, or SPECT tracers. The rates of true positivity were 63.7%, 58.5%, 78.4% and 82.4%, respectively, for 111In-DTPA-Octreotide, 99mTc-EDDA/HYNIC-TOC, 68Ga-DOTATATE/TOC and 64Cu-DOTATATE. In conclusion, as highly expected, PET tracers are more suitable for the in vivo identification of NETs. Indeed, in comparative studies, they demonstrated a higher true positive rate than SPECT agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Poletto
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Diego Cecchin
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Stefania Sperti
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Luca Filippi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Santa Maria Goretti Hospital, 04100 Latina, Italy
| | - Nicola Realdon
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy
| | - Laura Evangelista
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
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Toyama Y, Werner RA, Ruiz-Bedoya CA, Ordonez AA, Takase K, Lapa C, Jain SK, Pomper MG, Rowe SP, Higuchi T. Current and future perspectives on functional molecular imaging in nephro-urology: theranostics on the horizon. Theranostics 2021; 11:6105-6119. [PMID: 33897902 PMCID: PMC8058716 DOI: 10.7150/thno.58682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, a paradigm shift from single-photon-emitting radionuclide radiotracers toward positron-emission tomography (PET) radiotracers has occurred in nuclear oncology. Although PET-based molecular imaging of the kidneys is still in its infancy, such a trend has emerged in the field of functional renal radionuclide imaging. Potentially allowing for precise and thorough evaluation of renal radiotracer urodynamics, PET radionuclide imaging has numerous advantages including precise anatomical co-registration with CT images and dynamic three-dimensional imaging capability. In addition, relative to scintigraphic approaches, PET can allow for significantly reduced scan time enabling high-throughput in a busy PET practice and further reduces radiation exposure, which may have a clinical impact in pediatric populations. In recent years, multiple renal PET radiotracers labeled with 11C, 68Ga, and 18F have been utilized in clinical studies. Beyond providing a precise non-invasive read-out of renal function, such radiotracers may also be used to assess renal inflammation. This manuscript will provide an overview of renal molecular PET imaging and will highlight the transformation of conventional scintigraphy of the kidneys toward novel, high-resolution PET imaging for assessing renal function. In addition, future applications will be introduced, e.g. by transferring the concept of molecular image-guided diagnostics and therapy (theranostics) to the field of nephrology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitaka Toyama
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Rudolf A. Werner
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg Germany
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Camilo A. Ruiz-Bedoya
- Center for Infection and Inflammation Imaging Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Alvaro A. Ordonez
- Center for Infection and Inflammation Imaging Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Kei Takase
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Constantin Lapa
- Nuclear Medicine, Medical Faculty, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Sanjay K. Jain
- Center for Infection and Inflammation Imaging Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Martin G. Pomper
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven P. Rowe
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Takahiro Higuchi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg Germany
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
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Comparison of HER2-Targeted Antibodies for Fluorescence-Guided Surgery in Breast Cancer. Mol Imaging 2021; 2021:5540569. [PMID: 34194285 PMCID: PMC8205604 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5540569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although therapeutic advances have led to enhanced survival in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer, detection of residual disease remains challenging. Here, we examine two approved anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), trastuzumab and pertuzumab, as potential candidates for the development of immunoconjugates for fluorescence-guided surgery (FGS). Methods mAbs were conjugated to the near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) dye, IRDye800, and for quantitative in vitro assessment, to the radiometal chelator, desferrioxamine, to enable dual labeling with 89Zr. In vitro binding was evaluated in HER2-overexpressing (BT474, SKBR3) and HER2-negative (MCF7) cell lines. BT474 and MCF7 xenografts were used for in vivo and ex vivo fluorescence imaging. Results In vitro findings demonstrated HER2-mediated binding for both fluorescent immunoconjugates and were in agreement with radioligand assays using dual-labeled immunoconjugates. In vivo and ex vivo studies showed preferential accumulation of the fluorescently-labeled mAbs in tumors and similar tumor-to-background ratios. In vivo HER2 specificity was confirmed by immunohistochemical staining of resected tumors and normal tissues. Conclusions We showed for the first time that fluorescent trastuzumab and pertuzumab immunoconjugates have similar NIRF imaging performance and demonstrated the possibility of performing HER2-targeted FGS with agents that possess distinct epitope specificity.
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de Maar JS, Sofias AM, Porta Siegel T, Vreeken RJ, Moonen C, Bos C, Deckers R. Spatial heterogeneity of nanomedicine investigated by multiscale imaging of the drug, the nanoparticle and the tumour environment. Am J Cancer Res 2020; 10:1884-1909. [PMID: 32042343 PMCID: PMC6993242 DOI: 10.7150/thno.38625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic and phenotypic tumour heterogeneity is an important cause of therapy resistance. Moreover, non-uniform spatial drug distribution in cancer treatment may cause pseudo-resistance, meaning that a treatment is ineffective because the drug does not reach its target at sufficient concentrations. Together with tumour heterogeneity, non-uniform drug distribution causes “therapy heterogeneity”: a spatially heterogeneous treatment effect. Spatial heterogeneity in drug distribution occurs on all scales ranging from interpatient differences to intratumour differences on tissue or cellular scale. Nanomedicine aims to improve the balance between efficacy and safety of drugs by targeting drug-loaded nanoparticles specifically to tumours. Spatial heterogeneity in nanoparticle and payload distribution could be an important factor that limits their efficacy in patients. Therefore, imaging spatial nanoparticle distribution and imaging the tumour environment giving rise to this distribution could help understand (lack of) clinical success of nanomedicine. Imaging the nanoparticle, drug and tumour environment can lead to improvements of new nanotherapies, increase understanding of underlying mechanisms of heterogeneous distribution, facilitate patient selection for nanotherapies and help assess the effect of treatments that aim to reduce heterogeneity in nanoparticle distribution. In this review, we discuss three groups of imaging modalities applied in nanomedicine research: non-invasive clinical imaging methods (nuclear imaging, MRI, CT, ultrasound), optical imaging and mass spectrometry imaging. Because each imaging modality provides information at a different scale and has its own strengths and weaknesses, choosing wisely and combining modalities will lead to a wealth of information that will help bring nanomedicine forward.
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Boutsikou E, Porpodis K, Chatzipavlidou V, Hardavella G, Gerasimou G, Domvri K, Papadopoulos N, Avramidou V, Spyratos D, Kontakiotis T, Zarogoulidis K. Predictive Value of 99MTC-hynic-toc Scintigraphy in Lung Neuroendocrine Tumor Diagnosis. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2019; 18:1533033819842586. [PMID: 31079574 PMCID: PMC6535698 DOI: 10.1177/1533033819842586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Νeuroendocrine tumors of the lungs are rare arising in the thymus and gastro-entero-pancreatic tract and belonging to foregut of neuroendocrine tumors. The aim of the present prospective study was to estimate the potential impact of single-photon emission computed tomography somatostatin receptor scintigraphy using 99mTc-Tektrotyd on diagnosis, treatment response, and prognosis in patients with neuroendocrine tumors of the lungs. Methods: Thirty-six patients with neuroendocrine tumors of the lungs were evaluated by using 99mTc-HYNIC-TOC scintigraphy. The scintigraphic results were compared to liver tissue uptake (Krenning score). Likewise, the functional imaging results were compared with biochemical indices including chromogranin A, neuroendocrine-specific enolase, and insulin-like growth factor 1 at the time of diagnosis (baseline) and disease progression. Results: The number of somatostatin receptors, expressed with Krenning score, did not show any correlation with the survival of patients both at baseline (P = .08) and at disease progression (P = .24), and scintigraphy results did not relate significantly to progression-free survival. Comparing the results of 99mTc-HYNIC-TOC scintigraphy according to the response of patients in the initial treatment, a statistically significant negative correlation was observed both in the first and in the second scintigraphy with patients’ response (P = .001 and P < .001, respectively). The concentrations of biochemical markers were in accordance with scintigraphy results in the diagnosis. Conclusion: This study indicates that 99mTc-HYNIC-TOC scintigraphy appears to be a reliable, noninvasive technique for detection of primary neuroendocrine tumors and their locoregional or distant metastases, although it cannot be used as a neuroendocrine tumors of the lungs predictive technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efimia Boutsikou
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Porpodis
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Chatzipavlidou
- 2 Nuclear Medicine Department, Anticancer Hospital Theagenio, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Georgia Hardavella
- 3 Department of Respiratory Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - George Gerasimou
- 4 2nd Clinical Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Kalliopi Domvri
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Nikitas Papadopoulos
- 2 Nuclear Medicine Department, Anticancer Hospital Theagenio, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Avramidou
- 5 3rd Paediatric Department, Hippokration Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Dionisis Spyratos
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Theodoros Kontakiotis
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Zarogoulidis
- 1 Pulmonary Department, Oncology Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, G. Papanikolaou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
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Werner RA, Chen X, Lapa C, Koshino K, Rowe SP, Pomper MG, Javadi MS, Higuchi T. The next era of renal radionuclide imaging: novel PET radiotracers. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2019; 46:1773-1786. [PMID: 31144061 PMCID: PMC6647203 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-019-04359-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Although single-photon-emitting radiotracers have long been the standard for renal functional molecular imaging, recent years have seen the development of positron emission tomography (PET) agents for this application. We provide an overview of renal radionuclide PET radiotracers, in particular focusing on novel 18F-labelled and 68Ga-labelled agents. Several reported PET imaging probes allow assessment of glomerular filtration rate, such as [68Ga]ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ([68Ga]EDTA), [68Ga]IRDye800-tilmanocept and 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluorosorbitol ([18F]FDS)). The diagnostic performance of [68Ga]EDTA has already been demonstrated in a clinical trial. [68Ga]IRDye800-tilmanocept shows receptor-mediated binding to glomerular mesangial cells, which in turn may allow the monitoring of progression of diabetic nephropathy. [18F]FDS shows excellent kidney extraction and excretion in rats and, as has been shown in the first study in humans. Further, due to its simple one-step radiosynthesis via the most frequently used PET radiotracer 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose, [18F]FDS could be available at nearly every PET centre. A new PET radiotracer has also been introduced for the effective assessment of plasma flow in the kidneys: Re(CO)3-N-([18F]fluoroethyl)iminodiacetic acid (Re(CO)3([18F]FEDA)). This compound demonstrates similar pharmacokinetic properties to its 99mTc-labelled analogue [99mTc](CO)3(FEDA). Thus, if there is a shortage of molybdenum-99, Re(CO)3([18F]FEDA would allow direct comparison with previous studies with 99mTc. The PET radiotracers for renal imaging reviewed here allow thorough evaluation of kidney function, with the tremendous advantage of precise anatomical coregistration with simultaneously acquired CT images and rapid three-dimensional imaging capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf A Werner
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Xinyu Chen
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Constantin Lapa
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Kazuhiro Koshino
- Department of Biomedical Imaging, National Cardiovascular and Cerebral Center, Suita, Japan
| | - Steven P Rowe
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Martin G Pomper
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mehrbod S Javadi
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Takahiro Higuchi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
- Department of Biomedical Imaging, National Cardiovascular and Cerebral Center, Suita, Japan.
- Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University Graduate School, Okayama, Japan.
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Bernard-Gauthier V, Bailey JJ, Liu Z, Wängler B, Wängler C, Jurkschat K, Perrin DM, Schirrmacher R. From Unorthodox to Established: The Current Status of (18)F-Trifluoroborate- and (18)F-SiFA-Based Radiopharmaceuticals in PET Nuclear Imaging. Bioconjug Chem 2015; 27:267-79. [PMID: 26566577 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.5b00560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Unorthodox (18)F-labeling strategies not employing the formation of a carbon-(18)F bond are seldom found in radiochemistry. Historically, the formation of a boron- or silicon-(18)F bond has been introduced very early on into the repertoire of labeling chemistries, but is without translation into any clinical radiotracer besides inorganic B[(18)F]F4(-) for brain tumor diagnosis. For many decades these labeling methodologies were forgotten and have just recently been revived by a handful of researchers thinking outside the box. When breaking with established paradigms such as the inability to obtain labeled compounds of high specific activity via isotopic exchange or performing radiofluorination in aqueous media, the research community often reacts skeptically. In 2005 and 2006, two novel labeling methodologies were introduced into radiochemistry for positron emission tomography (PET) tracer development: RBF3(-) labeling reported by Perrin et al. and the SiFA methodology by Schirrmacher, Jurkschat, and Waengler et al. which is based on isotopic exchange (IE). Both labeling methodologies have been complemented by other noncanonical strategies to introduce (18)F into biomolecules of diagnostic importance, thus profoundly enriching the landscape of (18)F radiolabeling. B- and Si-based labeling strategies finally revealed that IE is a viable alternative to established and traditional radiochemistry with the advantage of simplifying both the labeling effort as well as the necessary purification of the radiotracer. Hence IE will be the focus of this contribution over other noncanonical labeling methods. Peptides for tumor imaging especially lend themselves favorably toward one-step labeling via IE, but small molecules have been described as well, taking advantage of these new approaches, and have been used successfully for brain imaging. This Review gives an account of both radiochemistries centered on boron and silicon, describing the very beginnings of their basic research, the path that led to optimization of their chemistries, and the first encouraging preclinical results paving the way to their clinical use. This side by side approach will give the reader the opportunity to follow the development of a new basic discovery into a clinically applicable radiotracer including all the hurdles that have had to be overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim Bernard-Gauthier
- Division of Oncological Imaging, Department of Oncology, University of Alberta , 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z2, Canada
| | - Justin J Bailey
- Division of Oncological Imaging, Department of Oncology, University of Alberta , 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z2, Canada
| | - Zhibo Liu
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health , 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | | | | | - Klaus Jurkschat
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Technical University of Dortmund , 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - David M Perrin
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia , 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ralf Schirrmacher
- Division of Oncological Imaging, Department of Oncology, University of Alberta , 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z2, Canada
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