One-Stage Reconstruction for Bilateral Möbius Syndrome: Simultaneous Use of Bilateral Spinal Accessory Nerves to Innervate 2 Free Muscles for Facial Reanimation

Treatment Approaches for Altered Facial Expression: A Systematic Review in Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy and Other Neurological Diseases

Background

Facial weakness is a key feature of facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) and may lead to altered facial expression and subsequent psychosocial impairment. There is no cure and supportive treatments focus on optimizing physical fitness and compensation of functional disabilities.

Objective

We hypothesize that symptomatic treatment options and psychosocial interventions for other neurological diseases with altered facial expression could be applicable to FSHD. Therefore, the aim of this review is to collect symptomatic treatment approaches that target facial muscle function and psychosocial interventions in various neurological diseases with altered facial expression in order to discuss the applicability to FSHD.

Methods

A systematic search was performed. Selected studies had to include FSHD, Bell's palsy, Moebius syndrome, myotonic dystrophy type 1, or Parkinson's disease and treatment options which target altered facial expression. Data was extracted for study and patients' characteristics, outcome assessment tools, treatment, outcome of facial expression and or psychosocial functioning.

Results

Forty studies met the inclusion criteria, of which only three studies included FSHD patients exclusively. Most, twenty-one, studies were performed in patients with Bell's palsy. Studies included twelve different therapy categories and results were assessed with different outcomes measures.

Conclusions

Five therapy categories were considered applicable to FSHD: training of (non-verbal) communication compensation strategies, speech training, physical therapy, conference attendance, and smile restoration surgery. Further research is needed to establish the effect of these therapies in FSHD. We recommend to include outcome measures in these studies that cover at least cosmetic, functional, communication, and quality of life domains.

Surgical Treatment for Postparalytic Facial Synkinesis - A 35 Year Experience

BACKGROUND

Surgical intervention with Combined myectomy & neurectomy followed by functioning free muscle transplantation (FFMT) has been proposed to effectively resolve the problem of postparalytic facial synkinesis (PPFS) since 1985, and continues to be our standard-of-care. We aim to provide evidence that this surgical strategy is effective for treatment of synkinesis and smile quality.

METHODS

103 patients with PPFS were investigated (1985-2020). They all underwent extensive removal of the synkinetic muscles and triggered facial nerve branches in the cheek, nose and neck regions, followed by gracilis FFMT for facial reanimation. Ninety-four patients with 50 Type II and 44 Type III PPFS patients, all of whom had at least one year of postoperative follow-up were included in the study. Patient's demographics, functional and aesthetic evaluations before and after surgery were collected.

RESULTS

In the yearly distribution of the facial paralysis reconstruction, the incidence of surgical intervention increased from 15% prior to 2012 up to 24% in the years after. Young adults (79%) and female patients (63%) were the dominant population. Results showed a significant improvement of the facial smile quality with more teeth visible while smiling, and a long-lasting decrease of facial synkinesis. Ninety six percent of patients did not require botulinum-A toxin injection after surgery. Revision surgery for secondary deformity was 53%.

CONCLUSION

Combined myectomy & neurectomy followed by FFMT for Type II and III synkinetic patients leads to promising and long-lasting results despite high revision rates. Refined techniques to decrease the revision rates are needed in the future.

Workhorse Free Functional Muscle Transfer Techniques for Smile Reanimation in Children with Congenital Facial Palsy: Case Report and Systematic Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Pediatric facial palsy represents a rare multifactorial entity. Facial reanimation restores smiling, thus boosting self-confidence and social integration of the affected children. The purpose of this paper is to present a systematic review of microsurgical workhorse free functional muscle transfer procedures with emphasis on the long-term functional, aesthetic, and psychosocial outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a literature search of the PubMed database from 1995 to 2019 using the following search strategy: "facial paralysis"[Title/Abstract] OR "facial palsy"[Title]. We used as limits: full text, English language, age younger than 18 years, and humans. Two independent reviewers performed the online screening process using Covidence. Forty articles met the inclusion criteria. The protocol was aligned with the PRISMA statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) and was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, CRD42019150112) of the National Institute for Health Research.

RESULTS

Free functional muscle transfer procedures include mainly segmental gracilis, latissimus dorsi, and pectoralis minor muscle transfer. Facial reanimation procedures with the use of the cross-face nerve graft (CFNG) or masseteric nerve result in almost symmetric smiles. The transplanted muscle grows harmoniously along with the craniofacial skeleton. Muscle function and aesthetic outcomes improve over time. All children presented improved self-esteem, oral commissure opening, facial animation, and speech.

CONCLUSIONS

A two-stage CFNG plus an FFMT may restore a spontaneous emotive smile in pediatric facial palsy patients. Superior results of children FFMT compared to adults FFMT are probably attributed to greater brain plasticity.

Nerve to the Zygomaticus Major Muscle for Facial Reanimation Surgery: A Cadaveric Study for Branching Patterns and Axonal Count

Background

In facial reanimation surgery, higher donor facial nerve axonal load yields a superior outcome. Nerves supplying the zygomaticus major muscle are primary donors for the grafting procedure; however, their topography has not been studied in detail. This study identified potential donor nerves by quantifying axon loads of the zygomaticus major muscle through histological analysis of cadaveric specimens.

Materials and Methods

Forty-three hemifaces from 26 fresh human cadavers were studied. Branching patterns of nerves were classified according to their shapes. All branches of interest were sectioned and stained for an axon count. The potential donors were mapped into each tributary of nerves supplying the zygomaticus major.

Results

Branching patterns were categorized into five types: Y-type (28%), X-type (28%), H-type (19%), E-type (14%), and F-type (11%). The mean number of axons in the most superiorly and proximally located main branches was 1387.33 ± 406.59 in Y-type, 1021.42 ± 187.79 in X-type, 1222.75 ± 193.82 in H-type, 1496.17 ± 364.567 in E-type, and 1353.40 ± 256.07 in F-type (P > 0.05). A topographic relation between facial nerves supplying the zygomaticus major muscle and their mean axonal load was illustrated. The zygomatic/buccal branches were found within 5 mm from Zuker's point in 100% of X-, Y-, H-, and E-type and 75% of F-type specimens.

Conclusions

Most proximal facial nerve branches supplying the zygomaticus major, arising at the anterior border of a parotid gland, contained over 900 axons in all five branching types. The primary subbranches may be used in selected cases if donor weakness is a concern. Further, our study provides evidence that demonstrates the precision of Zuker's point.

Facial Nerve Trauma: Clinical Evaluation and Management Strategies

The field of facial paralysis requires the reconstructive surgeon to apply a wide spectrum of reconstructive and aesthetic principles, using a comprehensive array of surgical tools, including microsurgery, peripheral nerve surgery, and aesthetic facial surgery on the road to optimize patient outcomes. The distinct deficits created by different anatomical levels of facial nerve injury require a fundamental understanding of facial nerve anatomy. Palsy duration, followed by location and mechanism, will determine mimetic muscle salvageability, by means of either direct repair, grafting, or nerve transfers, whereas longer palsy durations will necessitate introducing a new neuromuscular unit, whether by muscle transfer or free functional muscle transplant. A thorough history, physical examination, and basic understanding of ancillary studies, emphasizing palsy duration, location, and mechanism of injury, are critical in evaluation, prognostication, and treatment strategies in traumatic facial palsy patients. The importance of ancillary and aesthetic procedures cannot be overstated. Although these do not provide motion, they constitute essential tools in the treatment of facial paralysis, providing both protective and improved aesthetic outcomes, yielding the highest impact in final surgeon and patient satisfaction, bringing our patients to smile not only on the outside, but also on the inside.

The Spinal Accessory Nerve for Functional Muscle Innervation in Facial Reanimation Surgery: An Anatomical and Histomorphometric Study

INTRODUCTION

Facial reanimation surgery is performed in severe cases of facial palsy to restore facial function. In a 1-stage procedure, the spinal accessory nerve can be used as a donor nerve to power a free gracilis muscle transplant for the reanimation of the mouth. The aim of this study was to describe the surgical anatomy of the spinal accessory nerve, provide a guide for reliable donor nerve dissection, and analyze the available donor axon counts.

METHODS

Dissections were performed on 10 nonembalmed cadavers (measurements of 20 nerves). Surgical anatomy of the spinal accessory nerve was described and distances to important landmarks were measured. Nerve biopsies were obtained of the main nerve trunk distal to the skull base, caudoposterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, proximal to the trapezius muscle and at the level of donor nerve harvest to analyze the myelinated axon count throughout the course of the spinal accessory nerve. The donor nerve length and available donor nerve axon count were the primary outcome parameters in this study.

RESULTS

The mean donor nerve length was 11.6 cm. The spinal accessory nerve was transferred to the mandibular angle without tension for ideal coaptation to the free muscle transplant. After retraction of the trapezius muscle, a small distal nerve branch that leaves the main nerve trunk at a 90-degree angle medially was used as a landmark to indicate the level of donor nerve transection. On average, 1400 myelinated donor axons were available for innervation of the gracilis muscle transplant.

CONCLUSIONS

This study gives a practical guide for spinal accessory nerve dissection for its application in facial reanimation as a motor source for the innervation of a free muscle transplant.

Facial nerve trauma: evaluation and considerations in management

The management of facial paralysis continues to evolve. Understanding the facial nerve anatomy and the different methods of evaluating the degree of facial nerve injury are crucial for successful management. When the facial nerve is transected, direct coaptation leads to the best outcome, followed by interpositional nerve grafting. In cases where motor end plates are still intact but a primary repair or graft is not feasible, a nerve transfer should be employed. When complete muscle atrophy has occurred, regional muscle transfer or free flap reconstruction is an option. When dynamic reanimation cannot be undertaken, static procedures offer some benefit. Adjunctive tools such as botulinum toxin injection and biofeedback can be helpful. Several new treatment modalities lie on the horizon which hold potential to alter the current treatment algorithm.

Cortical adaptation staging system: a new and simple staging for result evaluation of functioning free-muscle transplantation for facial reanimation

BACKGROUND

Movement-associated cortical reorganization occurs in patients after functioning free-muscle transplantation (FFMT), which is reinnervated by different neurotizers. Aiming to evaluate the process of recovery of the reinnervated muscle, we defined the cortical reorganization into 5 stages. This staging system has been applied during the past 25 years at our center with great convenience and accessibility.

METHODS

A standardized evaluation method for assessing the recovery after FFMT to reanimate the paralyzed face with at least a 1-year follow-up was applied. The evaluation included the following 5 stages: no movement, dependent movement, independent movement, and spontaneous movement with and without involuntary movement. Reliability of this technique was assessed by 3 examiners, who each evaluated the smiles of 30 unilateral facial paralysis patients 4 times, creating 360 sets of measurements.

RESULTS

The intraclass correlation coefficients for interrater and intrarater reliability exceeded 0.929, which is considered excellent and reliable.

CONCLUSIONS

Chuang's Cortical Adaptation Staging System is simple, quick,and accurate in evaluating patients after FFMT reanimation of the paralyzed face with no additional tools.

Double innervated free functional muscle transfer for facial reanimation

BACKGROUND

The treatment of long-standing facial palsy represents a challenge for the reconstructive surgeon. Treatment is based on dynamic procedures such as functional muscle flaps. The benefit of added axonal load has recently been reported. This study describes a two stage technique involving dual innervation of a gracilis muscle flap with initial cross-facial nerve graft (CFNG) followed by free muscle transfer co-apted to both the CFNG and a masseter nerve for facial reanimation.

METHODS

A total of nine patients from August 2008-July 2011 were operated on with the double innervated gracilis muscle flap. Pre- and postoperative electromyography was documented, and video analysis with the five-stage classification of reanimation outcomes was performed.

RESULTS

All patients recovered voluntary and spontaneous smile abilities, with an average of 70% motor unit recruitment. Based on the Terzis reanimation outcome classification, four patients had an excellent result, four good, and one moderate.

CONCLUSIONS

The double innervated gracilis muscle flap is a viable technique for the treatment of long-standing facial palsy. It enables a fast recovery with fast muscle activity, and allows an emotional smile and aesthetic symmetry.